Lecture 17
Outlines of the Lecture:
Symbolic Logic and its Utility
Simple and Compound Statements
Conjunction
Truth Function
Truth Table
Symbolic Logic
• To have a full understanding of deductive reasoning we need a general theory of
deduction.
• A general theory of deduction will have two objectives:
• (1) to explain the relations between premises and conclusions in
deductive arguments, and
• (2) to provide techniques for discriminating between valid and invalid
deductions.
• Two great bodies of logical theory have sought to achieve these ends:
– The first is called classical (or Aristotelian) logic.
– The second, called modern, symbolic, or mathematical logic.
Cont...
• Modern logic does not build on the system of syllogisms. It does not begin with
the analysis of categorical propositions.
• Modern logic begins by first identifying the fundamental logical connectives on
which deductive arguments depend.
• This analysis of deduction requires an artificial symbolic language.
• Symbols greatly facilitate our thinking about arguments.
• They enable us to get to the heart of an argument, exhibiting its essential nature
and putting aside what is not essential.
• with symbols we can perform, almost mechanically, with the eye, some logical
operations which might otherwise demand great effort.
Cont..
• Language may seems paradoxical, but a symbolic language therefore helps
us to accomplish some intellectual tasks without having to think too much.
• Modern symbolic logic is therefore not encumbered, as Aristotelian logic
was, by the need to transform deductive arguments into syllogistic form.
•
• The system of modern logic we now begin to explore is in some ways less
elegant than analytical syllogistics, but it is more powerful.
Statements
• Simple statement: A statement that does not contain any other statement as a
component.
• For example, “Charlie is neat”
• A compound statement does contain another statement as a component.
• For example, “Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet” .
• Because, it contains two simple statements as components.
• Component: A part of a compound statement that is itself a statement,
and is of such a nature that, if replaced in the larger statement by any other statement,
the result will be meaningful.
Conjunction
• Conjunction: A truth-functional connective meaning “and,” symbolized by
the dot, •.
• A statement of the form p • q is true if and only if p is true and q is true.
• We can form the conjunction of two statements by placing the word “and” between
them; the two statements so combined are called conjuncts.
• Conjunct Each one of the component statements connected in a conjunctive statement
• Thus the compound statement, “Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet,” is a conjunction
whose first conjunct is “Charlie is neat” and whose second conjunct is “Charlie is
sweet.”
• To have a unique symbol whose only function is to connect statements conjunctively,
we introduce the dot “ ” as our symbol for conjunction.
• Dot, the symbol for conjunction, •, meaning “and.”
Cont..
•Truth value: The status of any statement as true or false (T or F).
•Truth-functional component: Any component of a compound statement whose
replacement there by any other statement having the same truth value would leave
the truth value of the compound statement unchanged.
•Truth-functional compound statement: A compound statement whose truth value
is determined wholly by the truth values of its components.
•Truth-functional connective: Any logical connective (e.g., conjunction, disjunction,
material implication and material equivalence) between the components of a truth
functionally compound statement.
•A conjunction is a truth-functional compound statement, so our dot symbol
is a truth-functional connective.
Cont..
• Given any two statements, p and q, there are
only four possible sets of truth values they can have.
• These four possible cases, and the truth value of the conjunction in
each, can be displayed as follows:
• Where p is true and q is true, is true. TTT
Where p is true and q is false, is false. TFF
Where p is false and q is true, is false. FTF
Where p is false and q is false, is false. FFF
• A conjunction is a truth-functional compound statement, so our dot symbol
is a truth-functional connective.
• If we represent the truth values “true” and “false” by the capital letters T
and F, the determination of the truth value of a conjunction by the truth
values of its conjuncts can be represented more compactly and more clearly
by means of a truth table:
• p q p•q
T T T
• T F F
• F T F
• F F F
Truth Table
• Truth table: An array on which all possible truth values of
compound statements are displayed, through the display of all
possible combinations of the truth values of their simple
components.
• A truth table may be used to define truth functional connectives;
• it may also be used to test the validity of many deductive
arguments.
