Chapter 1 (Part 3)

Rules of Inference
Outline
Valid Arguments
Inference Rules for Propositional Logic
Using Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
Valid Arguments
 We will show how to construct valid arguments in
propositional logic
 The rules of inference are the essential building
block in the construction of valid arguments.
 Propositional Logic
 Inference Rules
Arguments in Propositional Logic
An argument is a sequence of propositions.
All but the final proposition are called premises. The last
statement is the conclusion.
The argument is valid if the premises imply the conclusion.
If the premises are p1 ,p2, …,pn and the conclusion is q then

(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ … ∧ pn ) → q is a tautology.
Inference rules are all simple argument forms that will be
used to construct more complex argument forms.
Rules of Inference: Modus Ponens
Corresponding Tautology:
(p ∧ (p →q)) → q

Example:
Let p be “It is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete math.”

“It is snowing.”

“Therefore , I will study discrete math.”

Modus Tollens
Corresponding Tautology:
(¬q∧(p →q))→¬p

Example:
Let p be “it is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete math.”

“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , it is not snowing.”

Hypothetical Syllogism (Transitivity)
Corresponding Tautology:
((p →q) ∧ (q→r))→(p→ r)

Example:
Let p be “it snows.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will get an A.”

“If it snows, then I will study discrete math.”

“If I study discrete math, I will get an A.”

“Therefore , If it snows, I will get an A.”

Disjunctive Syllogism
Corresponding Tautology:
(¬p∧(p ∨q))→q

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math or I will study English literature.”

“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , I will study English literature.”

Addition
Corresponding Tautology:
p →(p ∨q)

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will visit Las Vegas.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math or I will visit

Las Vegas.”
Simplification (Specialisation)

Corresponding Tautology:
(p∧q) →p

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math and English literature”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math.”

Conjunction
Corresponding Tautology:
((p) ∧ (q)) →(p ∧ q)

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“I will study English literature.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math and I will study

English literature.”
Resolution Resolution plays an important role
in AI and is used in Prolog.

Corresponding Tautology:
((¬p ∨ r ) ∧ (p ∨ q)) →(q ∨ r)

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will study English literature.”
Let q be “I will study databases.”

“I will not study discrete math or I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math or I will study databases.”

“Therefore, I will study databases or I will English literature.”

Rules of Inference: Modus Ponens

(1) If Margaret Thatcher is the president of the U.S., then she

is at least 35 years old.
(2) Margaret Thatcher is the president of the US.
(3) Therefore, Margaret Thatcher is at least 35 years old.
Rule of Inference: Modus Ponens

(1) If the sum of the digits of 371,487 is divisible by 3,

then 371,487 is divisible by 3.
(2) The sum of the digits of 371,487 is divisible by 3.
(3) Therefore, 371,487 is divisible by 3.
Rules of Inference: Modus Tollens

(1) If Zeus is human, then Zeus is mortal.

(2) Zeus is not mortal.
(3) Therefore, Zeus is not human.
Modus ponens and Modus Tollens
a) If there are more pigeons than there are
pigeonholes , then at least two pigeons roost in the
same hole.
There are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes.
Therefore,__________________________________

b) If 870,232 is divisible by 6, then it is divisible by 3.

870,232 is not divisible by 3.
Therefore, __________________________________
Valid Arguments
Example 1: From the single proposition

Show that q is a conclusion.

Solution:
 Valid Arguments
Example 2:
 With these hypotheses:
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.”
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny.”
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.”
“If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.”
 Using the inference rules, construct a valid argument for the conclusion:
“We will be home by sunset.”
Solution:
1. Choose propositional variables:
p : “It is sunny this afternoon.”
r : “We will go swimming.”
t : “We will be home by sunset.”
q : “It is colder than yesterday.”
s : “We will take a canoe trip.”
2. Translation into propositional logic:
Validity of Argument
Our first example demonstrates the validity of the argument
p→r
p → q
q→s
¬r → s

Steps Reasons
1) p  r Premise
2) r  p Step (1) and p  r ≡ r  p
3) p  q Premise
4) r  q Steps (2) and (3) and transitivity (HS)
5) q  s Premise
6) r  s Steps (4) and (5) and the transitivity (HS)

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Validity of the argument
Establish the validity of the argument
pq
q  (r  s)
r  (t  u)
pt
u

Steps Reasons
1) p  q Premise
2) q  (r  s) Premise
3) p  (r  s) Steps (1) and (2) and transitivity (HS)
4) p  t Premise
5) p Step (4) and the specialisation (simplication)
6) r  s Steps (5) and (3) and the modus ponens
7) r Step (6) and the specialisation (simplication)
8) r  (t  u) Premise
9) t  u Step (7) and (8), and elimination (disjuntive syllogism)
10) t Step (4) and specialisation
11) u Steps (9) and (10) and elimination (disjuntive syllogism)

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Class Activity 1
Solution: Class Activity 1
Class Activity 2
If the band could not play rock music or the refreshments were not delivered on time, then
the New Year’s party would have been canceled and Alicia would have been angry. If the
party were canceled, then refunds would have had to be made. No refunds were made. The
above statement imply the conclusion the band could play rock music.

First we convert the given argument into symbolic form by using the following statement
assignments:
p: The band could play rock music.
q: The refreshments were delivered on time.
r: The New Year’s party was canceled.
s: Alicia was angry.
t: Refunds had to be made.

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Solution: Class Activity 2
The argument becomes:
(p  q)  (r  s)
rt
t
p

Therefore the band could play rock music.

Class Activity 3
Class Activity 4
Solution: Class Activity 4
Class Activity 5
Solution: Class Activity 5