CSE243: Introduction to Computer Architecture and
Hardware/Software Interface
Topics covered:
Memory subsystem
Basic concepts
Maximum size of the memory depends on the addressing
scheme:
16-bit computer generates 16-bit addresses and can address up
to 216 memory locations.
Number of locations represents the size of the address space
of a computer.
Most modern computers are byte-addressable.
Memory is designed to store and retrieve data in word-
length quantities.
Word length of a computer is commonly defined as the number
of bits stored and retrieved in one memory operation.
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Basic concepts (contd..)
Processor Memory
kbit
address bus
MAR
nbit
data bus
Up to 2 k addressable
MDR locations
Word length = n bits
Control lines
R /W
( , MFC, etc.)
Recall that the data transfers between a processor and memory involves two
registers MAR and MDR.
If the address bus is k-bits, then the length of MAR is k bits.
If the word length is n-bits, then the length of MDR is n bits.
Control lines include R/W and MFC.
For Read operation R/W = 1 and for Write operation R/W = 0.
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Basic concepts (contd..)
Measures for the speed of a memory:
Elapsed time between the initiation of an operation and the
completion of an operation is the memory access time.
Minimum time between the initiation of two successive memory
operations is memory cycle time.
In general, the faster a memory system, the costlier it is and
the smaller it is.
An important design issue is to provide a computer system
with as large and fast a memory as possible, within a given
cost target.
Several techniques to increase the effective size and speed
of the memory:
Cache memory (to increase the effective speed).
Virtual memory (to increase the effective size).
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Semiconductor RAM memories
Random Access Memory (RAM) memory unit is a unit where
any location can be addressed in a fixed amount of time,
independent of the location’s address.
Internal organization of memory chips:
Each memory cell can hold one bit of information.
Memory cells are organized in the form of an array.
One row is one memory word.
All cells of a row are connected to a common line, known as the
“word line”.
Word line is connected to the address decoder.
Sense/write circuits are connected to the data input/output
lines of the memory chip.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Internal organization of memory chips
7 7 1 1 0 0
W0
•
•
•
FF FF
A0 W1
•
•
•
A1
Address Memory
• • • • • •
decoder • • • • • • cells
A2 • • • • • •
A3
W15
•
•
•
Sense / Write Sense / Write Sense / Write R/W
circuit circuit circuit
CS
Data input/output lines: b7 b1 b0
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Internal organization of memory chips
5bit row
address W0
W1
32 × 32
5bit
decoder memory cell
array
W31
Sense/ Write
circuitry
10bit
address
32to1
R/ W
output multiplexer
and
CS
input demultiplexer
5bit column
address
Data
input/output
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Static RAMs (SRAMs):
Consist of circuits that are capable of retaining their state as
long as the power is applied.
Volatile memories, because their contents are lost when power
is interrupted.
Access times of static RAMs are in the range of few
nanoseconds.
However, the cost is usually high.
Dynamic RAMs (DRAMs):
Do not retain their state indefinitely.
Contents must be periodically refreshed.
Contents may be refreshed while accessing them for reading.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Internal organization of a Dynamic RAM memory chip
•Organized as 4kx4k array.
R AS
4096 cells in each row are
Row
divided into 512 groups of 8.
address Row 4096 × (512 × 8 ) •Each row can store 512 bytes.
latch decoder cell array
12 bits to select a row, and 9
bits to select a group in a row.
•Total of 21 bits.
CS •Reduce the number of bits by
Sense / Write multiplexing row and column
A20 9 ⁄ A 8 0
circuits addresses.
R/ W •First apply the row address, RAS
signal latches the row address.
Column •Then apply the column address,
address Column
decoder CAS signal latches the address.
latch
•Timing of the memory unit is
controlled by a specialized unit
which generates RAS and CAS.
C AS •This is asynchronous DRAM.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Recall the operation of the memory:
First all the contents of a row are selected based on a row
address.
Particular byte is selected based on the column address.
Suppose if we want to access the consecutive bytes in the
selected row.
This can be done without having to reselect the row.
Add a latch at the output of the sense circuits in each row.
All the latches are loaded when the row is selected.
Different column addresses can be applied to select and place
different bytes on the data lines.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Consecutive sequence of column addresses can be applied
under the control signal CAS, without reselecting the row.
Allows a block of data to be transferred at a much faster rate
than random accesses.
A small collection/group of bytes is usually referred to as a
block.
This transfer capability is referred to as the fast page
mode feature.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
•Operation is directly synchronized
Refresh
counter with processor clock signal.
•Synchronous DRAMs.
•The outputs of the sense circuits are
Row connected to a latch.
Row
address decoder Cell array •During a Read operation, the
latch
Row/Column
contents of the cells in a row are
address loaded onto the latches.
Column Column Read/Write
•During a refresh operation, the
address
counter decoder circuits & latches contents of the cells are refreshed
without changing the contents of
the latches.
Clock
•Data held in the latches correspond
R AS to the selected columns are transferred
Mode register
CAS and Data input Data output to the output.
register register
R/ W timing control •For a burst mode of operation,
CS successive columns are selected using
column address counter and clock.
CAS signal need not be generated
Data
externally.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
21bit
A0
addresses 19bit internal chip address Implement a memory unit of 2M
A1 words of 32 bits each.
Use 512x8 static memory chips.
A19
A20
Each column consists of 4 chips.
Each chip implements one byte
position.
A chip is selected by setting its
chip select control line to 1.
Selected chip places its data on the
2bit
decoder data output line, outputs of other
chips are in high impedance state.
21 bits to address a 32-bit word.
High order 2 bits are needed to
512K × 8
memory chip
D3124 D2316 D 158 D70
select the row, by activating the
four Chip Select signals.
512K × 8 memory chip
19 bits are used to access specific
byte locations inside the selected
19bit 8bit data
address input/output chip.
Chip select
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Large dynamic memory systems can be implemented using
DRAM chips in a similar way to static memory systems.
Placing large memory systems directly on the motherboard
will occupy a large amount of space.
Also, this arrangement is inflexible since the memory system
cannot be expanded easily.
Packaging considerations have led to the development of
larger memory units known as SIMMs (Single In-line Memory
Modules) and DIMMs (Dual In-line Memory Modules).
Memory modules are an assembly of memory chips on a small
board that plugs vertically onto a single socket on the
motherboard.
Occupy less space on the motherboard.
Allows for easy expansion by replacement.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Recall that the rows of the Dynamic RAM need to be
accessed periodically in order to be refreshed.
Older DRAMs typical refreshing period was 16 ms.
SDRAMs typical refreshing period is 64 ms.
Let us consider a SDRAM with 8192 rows:
Suppose it takes 4 clock cycles to access each row.
Total of 4x8192 = 32767 clock cycles.
If the clock rate is 133 MHz, then the total refresh time if
0.000246 seconds.
Refreshing must be done every 64 ms.
Overhead is 0.0038.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
Data is transferred between the processor and the memory in
units of single word or a block.
Speed and efficiency of data transfer has a large impact on the
performance of a computer.
Two metrics of performance: Latency and Bandwidth.
Latency:
Time taken to transfer a single word of data to or from memory.
Definition is clear if the memory operation involves transfer of a
single word of data.
In case of a block transfer, latency is the time it takes to transfer
first word of data.
Time required to transfer first word in a block is substantially
larger than the time required to transfer consecutive words in a
block.
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Semiconductor RAM memories (contd..)
How much time is needed to transfer a single block of data.
Blocks can be variable in size, it is useful to define a
performance measure in terms of the number of bits or
bytes transferred in one second.
This performance measure is referred to as memory
bandwidth.
Bandwidth of a memory unit depends on:
Speed of access to the chip.
How many bits can be accessed in parallel.
Bandwidth of data transfer between processor and memory
unit also depends on:
Transfer capability of the links that connect the processor and
memory, or the speed of the bus.
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Memory systems
Various factors such as cost, speed, power consumption and
size of the chip determine how a RAM is chosen for a given
application.
Static RAMs:
Chosen when speed is the primary concern.
Circuit implementing the basic cell is highly complex, so cost
and size are affected.
Used mostly in cache memories.
Dynamic RAMs:
Predominantly used for implementing computer main memories.
High densities available in these chips.
Economically viable for implementing large memories.
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Memory controller
Recall that in a dynamic memory chip, to reduce the number
of pins, multiplexed addresses are used.
Address is divided into two parts:
High-order address bits select a row in the array.
They are provided first, and latched using RAS signal.
Low-order address bits select a column in the row.
They are provided later, and latched using CAS signal.
However, a processor issues all address bits at the same
time.
In order to achieve the multiplexing, memory controller
circuit is inserted between the processor and memory.
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Memory controller (contd..)
Row/Column
Address address
RAS
R/ W
CAS
Memory
Request controller R/ W
Processor Memory
CS
Clock
Clock
Data
Memory controller accepts the complete address, R/W signal from the processor,
under the request of a control signal.
Controller forwards row and column address portions to the memory, and issues
RAS and CAS signals.
It also sends R/W and CS signals to the memory.
Data lines are connected directly between the processor and memory.
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Read-Only Memories (ROMs)
SRAM and SDRAM chips are volatile:
Lose the contents when the power is turned off.
Many applications need memory devices to retain contents after the
power is turned off.
For example, computer is turned on, the operating system must be
loaded from the disk into the memory.
Store instructions which would load the OS from the disk.
Need to store these instructions so that they will not be lost after the
power is turned off.
We need to store the instructions into a non-volatile memory.
Non-volatile memory is read in the same manner as volatile memory.
Separate writing process is needed to place information in this memory.
Normal operation involves only reading of data, this type of memory is
called Read-Only memory (ROM).
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Read-Only Memories (contd..)
Read-Only Memory:
Data are written into a ROM when it is manufactured.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):
Allow the data to be loaded by a user.
Process of inserting the data is irreversible.
Storing information specific to a user in a ROM is expensive.
Providing programming capability to a user may be better.
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM):
Stored data to be erased and new data to be loaded.
Flexibility, useful during the development phase of digital
systems.
Erasable, reprogrammable ROM.
Erasure requires exposing the ROM to UV light.
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Read-Only Memories (contd..)
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EEPROM):
To erase the contents of EPROMs, they have to be exposed to
ultraviolet light.
Physically removed from the circuit.
EEPROMs the contents can be stored and erased electrically.
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Flash memory
Flash memory has similar approach to EEPROM.
Read the contents of a single cell, but write the contents of
an entire block of cells.
Flash devices have greater density.
Higher capacity and low storage cost per bit.
Power consumption of flash memory is very low, making it
attractive for use in equipment that is battery-driven.
Single flash chips are not sufficiently large, so larger
memory modules are implemented using flash cards and flash
drives.
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Acronyms
RAM --Random Access Memory time taken to access any arbitrary location
in memory is constant (c.f., disks)
ROM --Read Only Memory ROMs are RAMs which can only be written
to once; thereafter they can only be read
Older uses included storage of bootstrap info
PROM --Programmable ROM A ROM which can be bench programmed
EPROM --Erasable PROM A PROM which can be erased for rewriting
EEPROM --Electrically EPROM A PROM which can be erased electrically.
SRAM --Static RAM RAM chip which loses contents upon power off
DRAM --Dynamic RAM RAM chip whose contents need to be refreshed.
SDRAM --Synchronous DRAM RAM whose memory operations are synchronized
with a clock signal.
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