Trends and Issues in

Education
• Modern Trends in Curriculum Design, Construction and
Development
• Modern Tools and Techniques for Knowledge
Construction and Dissemination
• Trends in Methodology, Pedagogy and Evaluation
• Trends in Financing Education
• Issues in Contemporary Education
MARIAN SCARLET V. SILVANO
REPORTER
C120
Teaching and learning processes are being focused on how to
prepare students for living and thriving in the dynamic and chaotic
environment of a changing world. Most countries have undertaken
major reforms of their curriculum with increased emphasis on skills
and dispositions, which are perceived as relevant to lifelong
learning, employment and social participation. Educational content
and teaching-learning materials now appear to be more functional,
diversified, and operational in nature. An increased emphasis is
placed on relevance, flexibility, needs, and competence in
curriculum delivery.
In curriculum’s knowledge-building role,
there is a great desire for new global skills such as:
· Critical thinking and problem solving
· Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
· Agility and adaptability
· Initiative and entrepreneurialism
· Effective oral and written communication
· Accessing and analysing information
· Curiosity and imagination ·
The current trends in curriculum could be characterised by
meaningful and constructive forms of emergence in terms of:
• Individual emergence - for example enhanced capacity of
teachers to teach.
• Structural emergence - for example the designation of new roles
and systems for teachers and schools to facilitate the new policy.
• Cultural emergence - for example the refinement of the policy
itself as a result of professional engagement of teachers.
Teacher Made Curriculum
· Teachers have to facilitate the implementation of the
emergent curriculum changes.
· Teachers have to adopt new ideologies and implement
them in their teaching within the education system.
· Teachers who deliver the curriculum will have to provide
learning experiences for holistic development of mind,
body intellect and emotions to meet the emergent trends.
Implications of Emergent Curriculum Trends
for Teachers as Facilitators of Curriculum Changes

· Most curricular models have emerged when it appears that capacity for school-based
curriculum development is limited, causing several implications on the professional input of
teachers.
· In the context of emergent trends in curriculum, the implications and concerns to be
addressed by teachers in curriculum and pedagogy are as follows:
· Understanding curriculum theory and processes
· Providing differentiated differentiation
· Facilitating learner centred instruction
· Utilising multiple instructional strategies, developing global citizens and lifelong learners
· Developing emergent curriculum integration of technologies for curriculum delivery.
Understanding of Curriculum Theory and Processes
· Teachers need an increased understanding of curriculum theory to
ensure quality teaching.
· Teachers must understand the theory of the transformation
process of learning, from data into information; information into
knowledge; and knowledge making use of physiological processes,
cognitive processes, environmental and cultural processes.
· Teachers must be able to use the available tools and techniques to
devise a solution that meets the demand at the time.
Teachers should give quality curriculum delivery with a thorough
understanding of the art of curriculum and must be able to change
roles and responsibilities when needed.
· It is crucial that teachers have an understanding of curriculum
theory if they are truly to evoke educational change in the future. ·
Understanding curriculum theory and processes would provide
teachers with an understanding of pedagogy and a capacity for
collaborative work.
· Teachers also need to be aware of the cyclical nature of curriculum
theory, especially when reviewing needs analysis, methodologies,
evaluation, processes, and assessment procedures.
Areas of review for teachers of the future should include the following:
· Historical development of curriculum studies
· Current theory and practice in the field
· Macro and micro dimensions in curriculum
· Ethos and cultural considerations
· Process of curriculum change and impact of technology on curriculum
· Models and processes of instructional design
· Models and processes for developing learning strategies
· Identification and implementation of appropriate teaching methods
· Models and techniques of assessment and the evaluation process
· Staff development needs
· Practical application of curriculum design and product as per student to work
programmes
Facilitating Learner-Centred Instruction
· A common emergent curriculum trend concerns the positioning of
the learner at the heart of schooling.
· The purpose of education is to train students in skills and
procedures they will need in the workplace.
· The teaching and training is about the efficient production of an
end product: the educated person.
· After successfully completing a programme of learning, the
student will have met the terminal objectives set by educators, and
therefore fulfil a role in society.
· To meet the needs of society, teachers should prepare students to
be able to function as mature contributing members by being
competent and by being able to perform.
· Teachers should integrate experiential learning to help students to
learn how to integrate their new knowledge with existing knowledge
(constructivism).
· Teachers should integrate experiential learning for students to
monitor their learning and problem solving (metacognition).
Education reform in the
Philippines
The Philippine education system has evolved over hundreds of
years of colonial occupation, first by Spain and then by the US,
through martial law and the people’s power revolution that brought
democracy to the sprawling archipelago. The education sector’s
development has mirrored the changes in the country’s
administration. Today the focus is on expanding access and
ensuring more Filipinos receive a decent basic education, as a
means of reducing poverty and improving national
competitiveness. The World Bank notes that in other countries
such initiatives have brought “large economic benefits”. The K-12
reform was introduced in 2016 and funding was increased, easing
concerns that its implementation would be hindered by limited
resources and winning over new President Rodrigo Duterte, who
was initially sceptical about the plan.
K-12 Implementation
Three years since the Enhanced Basic Education Act
(EBEA, known as the K-12 law) was signed, the
Philippines has finally embarked on its most ground-
breaking change to the schooling system in decades, the
K-12 reform.
K-12 extends compulsory schooling to grades 11 and 12,
adding two years to secondary school, and makes
secondary education compulsory. Prior to its
implementation, the Philippines was the only country in
Asia, and one of only a few in the world, to have a basic
education system of just 10 years. 
The EBEA also mandated kindergarten as the start of
compulsory formal education, while the Kindergarten Act
of 2012 made pre-school free. In August 2016, 1.5m
Filipino children attended 11th grade, with senior school
students choosing between four tracks through the
system: academic, technical-vocational, sports or the
arts. Much of the opposition to the initiative, which
triggered five separate petitions to the Supreme Court,
centred on whether the country’s teachers, schools and
administration were in a position to implement the
reform. 
Modern Tools and Techniques for
Knowledge Construction and
Dissemination
MARIAN SCARLET V. SILVANO
C120 / REPORTER
Web based learning, E-learning
· E-learning is commonly referred to the intentional use of
networked information and communications technology in
teaching and learning.
· A number of other terms like online learning, virtual learning,
distributed learning, network and web-based learning are also
used to describe this mode of teaching and learning.
· Fundamentally, they all refer to educational processes that utilize
information and communications technology to mediate
asynchronous as well as synchronous learning and teaching
activities.
· The term e-learning comprises a lot more than online learning,
virtual learning, distributed learning, networked or web-based
learning.
· As the letter “e” in e-learning stands for the word “electronic”,
e-learning would incorporate all educational activities that are
carried out by individuals or groups working online or offline.
E-learning can manifest itself in four
different ways :
• Individualized self-paced e-learning
online
• Individualized self-paced e-learning
offline
• Group-based e-learning
synchronously
• Group-based e-learning
asynchronously
E-resources
• Electronic resources (e-resources)
consist of data representing numbers,
text, graphics, images, maps, moving
images, music, sounds, etc. and
programs of instruction sets.
• E-resources should be readily
accessible to all teacher educators and
teacher trainees. ·
Before the development of computer and
internet technology, printed version of
resources like books, journals, dictionaries,
work books, etc. played a significant role in
teaching and learning process. The printed
versions of resources are not easily accessible
to all and are also expensive in nature. In
today’s age of internet, the electronic version
of books and e-journals is available in
abundance and has become inevitable.
Types of e-resources

E-resources in Teacher
Education are generally
classified into two major areas
namely Online e-resources and
Offline e-resources.
Online e-resources are :
• e-books; e-journals; e-mail;
e-library e-forum; e-learning
(lessons / courses); e-shops; e-
dictionaries; mobile sms /
mms; search engines and
metasearch engines.
• This can be available in a three
types of matter;
(a) freely available resource contents
(Websites);
(b) licensed resources (databases
available by logging by library card)
(c) onsite resources (websites related
to particular content names).
Offline e-resources are :
• CD-ROM based e-resources;
Offline e-books; Offline e-
dictionaries; MS Office
applications (documents,
spreadsheets, power points);
Training software; e-prompter;
resources from mobile devices
and secondary storage devices.
E-communication:
· Electronic communication refers to
the exchange of information by
electronic and electrical means over a
significant distance.
· E-communication devices include
telephones, mobile phones, VoIP,
broadcast networks, fiber optics,
satellites and the internet..
Blogs
• The terms blog and web log (or weblog) refers to
a website that contains a log or diary of
information, specific topics or opinions.
• A blog author (blogger) links to stories or other
websites with relevant and interesting
information.
• These links are typically segregated according to
the blog's topic or subtopic and written in reverse
chronological order, meaning that the most
current links display at the top of the blog's home
page.
Bulletin boards, Forums
· The terms bulletin board, message board
and even internet forum are
interchangeable, although often one bulletin
board or message board can contain a
number of internet forums or discussion
groups.
· A bulletin board (pin board or notice
board) is a surface intended for the posting
of public messages, so that people can read.
· Bulletin boards are sometimes referred to
as message boards. An online board can
serve the same purpose as a physical
bulletin board.
· A message board is also known as a forum,
an online forum, and Internet forum or a
discussion board.
· A message board is an online discussion
area in which users with similar interests
discuss topics. These conversations or
discussions are available in the form of
posted messages.
· Discussions are listed in a central place
maintained on web pages. Message boards can be
specialised or general, global or local, free or
subscription-based, public or private, etc.
· Due to the simplicity and uncomplicated
accessibility, message boards have become an
excellent source of discussion and communication
on the Internet.
· In these friendly discussion spots, members are
able to view posts, post new queries or respond to
existing queries posted by other members.
Social Media for Pedagogical
Innovation
· In most contemporary learning environments,
media is skillfully integrated with the
instructional method and the media plays a very
influential and critical role in learning and
teaching.
· Media play a critical role in achieving the
intended learning outcomes for the students.
· Media serve to motivate students with clever
use of sound, pictures and animation.
· Media are also very useful in representing contexts
and situations from the real world which are harder to
bring into the classroom for live demonstrations.
· The learning environments skillfully utilise the
strengths of various media attributes with powerful
learning strategies such as problem solving,
collaborative inquiry and critical reflection to engage
learners in meaningful and motivating learning tasks.
· In such educational settings media take on a very
important role in both learning and teaching.
· Learning and teaching is adversely affected when
media are not skillfully integrated into the learning
experiences.
· Conversely, learning and teaching is optimised when
media have been carefully selected and applied with
sound instructional strategies to serve specific
learning needs in different domains of learning.
· Clever use of media can serve to motivate learner’s
interest.
· Information and communication technologies
provide various opportunities for capturing and
representing real-world scenarios.
· Certain media such as video has attributes that are
especially valuable for capturing authentic contexts
and situations from the real world.
· Skillful integration of media and teaching methods
is critical in the optimisation of learning.
· Skillful integration of media and teaching methods
can be achieved through pedagogical designs such as:
real-life scenario-based learning, problem-based
learning, case-based learning, role-play based
learning, and design-based learning
e-textbooks - e-journals - Digital
Library
· The impact of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) is emerging in the library systems,
giving way to electronic books (e-books) as well as digital
knowledge centres.
· e-textbooks, e-journals and other electronic sources of
reading are commonly referred to as e-books.
· Electronic books or E-books can be defined as any kind
of digitised information, ranging from a CD-ROM title to
an online interactive database or a collection of Web pages;
a collection of reactive pages of electronic information that
exhibit many of the characteristic features and properties of
a conventional book.
· Digital libraries are learning environments
which have an application containing a
multimedia database of instructional
resources that store pre-captured multimedia
presentations about topics in a book.
· A digital library could provide access to an
unlimited number of copies.
· E-books are easy to carry and they cut down
the requirement of papers, save office space
and take less time to process information.
Role of Teacher and learner
· ICT offers a range of new possibilities for the
administrators, teachers and students.
· A teacher must enable the right pupils to receive
the right education, at a cost within the means of
the state under conditions which will enable the
pupils in the best way to profit by their training.
· Eminent teachers can be utilised for teaching at
their convenience through mobile technologies and
seamless communication technologies that support
constant teaching and learning.
· Teachers can fully equip students to meet the ever
evolving demands in today's highly-competitive
environment.
· The e-Learning system has powerful capabilities for
managing courses and tailoring instructions to meet student
needs.
· Learners are free to participate in learning activities at
their convenience through online technologies.
· Learners should maximise their E-learning and gain better
access to educational resources from outside the institution
on a global and instant basis.
· Learners can flexibly exchange their respective view-
points and knowledge through e-mail and online discussion
forums.
· Teachers and learners can contribute to
international, cross-cultural and collaborative
learning by discussing issues online, scheduling
collaborative sessions and forming groups to enable
teamwork across geographic boundaries and extend
learning beyond the classroom.
· The education system needs to be made more
efficient and effective by implementing e-
governance.
· The educators must think in terms of imparting
what is known as life-long education, or, more aptly,
life-long self-education.
Learning Management Systems
(LMS)
· A learning management system (LMS) is a
software application or Web-based technology used
to plan, implement, and assess a specific learning
process.
· Typically, a learning management system
provides an instructor with a way to create and
deliver content, monitor student participation, and
assess student performance.
· A learning management system may also
provide students with the ability to use
interactive features such as threaded
discussions and discussion forums.
· The Advanced Distance Learning group,
sponsored by the United States Department of
Defense, has created a set of specifications
called Shareable Content Object Reference
Model to encourage the standardization of
learning management systems.
Online Learning
· Online Learning can be defined as learning
with the assistance of the internet and a
personal computer. The term e-learning, or
electronic learning, often is used
interchangeably with online learning.
· Online learning can consist of both real-time
interactions as well as interactions which occur
over extended periods of time, such as email or
an online discussion board.
· Courses are broken up into modules that
contain the learning content and activities to be
completed by the learner.
· Each module usually begins with text
readings, PowerPoint, and lectures that provide
the information needed to complete the
assignments.
· The learning activities vary with each module
and might include discussions, scenarios,
simulations, projects, or papers. · The
important benefit of online learning is that it
can span time and distance.
· The teacher and the student need not be in the same
place to obtain course related information.
· Online learning facilitates easy and flexible access
to course documents to students with consistent
interaction with classmates and teacher.
· Online learning falls under the broader category of
distance education.
· Distance education is defined as an education
program whereby students may complete all or part
of an educational program in a geographical location
apart from the institution hosting the program.
Blended Learning
· Blended learning describes the combining of face-
to-face learning activities with online or computer-
based learning activities.
· Blended learning is the integration of classroom
learning with e-learning, as the usage of computer
technologies enables students to learn effectively.
· There is a relatively new term of workshops that
deals with blending some of the different modes of
online learning, especially blending synchronous
with asynchronous modes.
Moodle
· Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning
Environment (Moodle) is an open-source software that
provides the ability to create, deploy and manage e-
learning websites and applications.
· Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning
Environments are a type of learning management
system (LMS) or online learning system (OLS).
· Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning
Environments were initially developed by an educator
and are now maintained by Moodle Community and
Moodle HQ.
· Moodle course management provides the
functionality to create and manage educational courses
online.
· The Moodle environment is entirely free to use, is
available under General Public License. · Moodle's
features include the ability to develop courses, enroll
students, manage assignments, and provide quizzes,
grading, wiki and discussion forums for thousands of
virtual students at a time.
· Besides education, Moodle is used for various other
related environments such as business communication
and employee or system training.
Webinar
· Short for web-based seminar, a Webinar is an
interactive and live seminar, presentation, lecture, or
workshop that is transmitted over the World Wide Web
using video conference software.
· A key feature of a Webinar is its interactive elements
- the ability to give, receive and discuss information.
Participating viewers can submit questions and
comments to the presenter through chatting, video-
chatting, file-sharing, or asking questions with a
microphone.
Mobile Learning
· Mobile learning is the delivery of learning, education
or learning support on mobile phones, PDAs or
tablets.
· Mobile learning is really the same concept of e-
Learning only the electronic media platform is
specifically clarified as personal devices or portable
technology.
· With mobile learning, employees or students have
the ability to access training content anywhere,
provided their devices get signals.
Advantages of Mobile Learning
· The ability to utilise a blended learning
approach and the opportunity to access
training from nearly any location.
· The ability to exchange information and
interact with other learners almost instantly,
increasing social learning benefits as
learners communicate and collaborate with
one another.
Access of Mobile Learning
· Mobile learning is accessed through a type of
internet based software application called learning
management system (LMS).
· The LMS tool allows training co-ordinators to store
all training content in one place where users can
access via their mobile device.
· An LMS can help track training activities, scores on
assessments, and just about any other aspect related to
the training.
· The right LMS can help make mobile learning
simple and convenient for both learners and training
administrators.
Open Educational Resources
(OER)
· Open Educational Resources (OER) are teaching and
learning materials that are freely available online for
everyone to use. In an educational context, OER
relates to resources that are specifically licenced to be
used and re-used.
· Examples of OER include full courses, course
modules, syllabi, lectures, homework assignments,
quizzes, lab and classroom activities, pedagogical
materials, games, simulations, and many more
resources contained in digital media collections from
· Many philosophies and models of OER have emerged which
include sharing freely, preventing duplication, avoiding restrictive
(Copyright) practices, promoting economic efficiencies and
improving access to wide groups of stakeholders.
· Several of these philosophies have been significant within the
education community both in terms of research and learning &
teaching, particularly educational technology.
· Learning resources should be considered by their levels of
granularity and focus on the degree to which information content is
embedded within a learning activity.
· OER was first introduced at a conference hosted by UNESCO in
2000 and was promoted in the context of providing free access to
educational resources on a global scale.
Universal Design for Learning
(UDL)
· Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a set of principles for
curriculum development that provides teachers with a structure to
develop instruction to meet the diverse needs of all learners.
· UDL is a research-based framework which suggests that each
student learns in a unique manner and the approach of one
method of teaching fitting all students is not effective.
· Instruction can be customised and adjusted to meet individual
student needs by creating options for how instruction is presented,
how students express their ideas, and how teachers can engage
students in their learning.
· In learning environments, such as schools and
universities, individual variability is the norm, not
the exception.
· When curricula are designed to meet the needs of
an imaginary average, they fail to provide all
individuals with fair and equal opportunities to
learn by excluding learners with different abilities,
backgrounds, and motivations who do not meet the
illusive criteria for average.
· UDL helps address learner variability by
suggesting flexible goals, methods, materials, and
assessments that empower educators to meet these
varied needs.
Three primary principles, which are based on
neuroscience research, guide UDL and
provide the underlying framework for the
guidelines.
❑ Principle I : Multiple Means of
Representation (the “what” of learning)
❑ Principle II: Multiple Means of Action and
Expression (the “how” of learning)
❑ Principle III: Multiple Means of
Engagement (the “why” of learning)
Principle I : Multiple Means of Representation
(the “what” of learning)
· The first UDL principle has three supporting guidelines
that help direct its implementation in the classroom and in
the creation of course materials - provide options for
perception, provide options for language, expressions and
symbols and provide options for comprehension.
· Students differ in the ways that they perceive and
comprehend information that is presented to them. · This
principle suggests that by showing the same material in
different ways, learning opportunities are increased for all
learners.
· If these multiple options are not there, then there is an
increased chance to inhibit student learning.
Principle II: Multiple Means of Action and Expression
(the “how” of learning)
· The second UDL principle has three supporting guidelines that help
direct its implementation in the classroom and in the creation of
course materials - provide options for physical action, provide options
for expressive and communicative skills and fluency and provide
options for executive functions.
· Expressing oneself can sometimes be a challenge in a structured
environment such as a college.
· As educators, it is essential to be attuned to the fact that there is not
one form of expression that is optimal for all students.
· Catering to the natural diversity of expression when designing a
course can serve to broaden the impact of teaching.
· Some ways to broaden the impact of teaching are through text,
verbal presentations, design, film video, multimedia, 3D Models,
music/art, recordings, or graphic organisers. Technology plays a big
role in facilitating these implementations.
Principle III: Multiple Means of Engagement
(the “why” of learning)
· The third UDL principle has three supporting guidelines
that help direct its implementation in the classroom and in
the creation of course materials - provide options for
Recruiting Interest, provide options for Sustaining Effort
and Persistence and provide options for Self-Regulation.
· This principle stresses the importance of holding student
attention to maximize their engagement in the task at hand.
· When a student is actively participating in the task at hand,
they are said to be engaged.
· Principle III places a large emphasis on engaging the
individual interests of students into the components of
lessons and assignments.
Multimedia approach
· Multimedia in education represents the latest technology and
introduces new ways of thinking about curriculum,
interactions with students and the nature of learning into the
classroom.
· Multimedia can mean any kind of file or document, either a
text or spreadsheet, that have audio or video effects or
interactive information.
· In terms of having training and instruction, multimedia is a
powerful tool which can provide individual and interactive
instructions as well as motivation for practice in an
entertainment environment.
· Multimedia also provides students with different learning
styles, the opportunity to learn, share, communicate and grow
using all their faculties.
Nature of Multimedia
Approach
· Multimedia approach uses a number of media,
devices, techniques, in the teaching and learning
process.
· Multimedia approach has come out of researches
and experiments in educational technology that have
been undertaken in order to improve the process of
teaching.
· Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful
learning experiences via a mix of media in order to
achieve predetermined objectives.
Role of teacher in Multimedia
approach
· The teacher would have to make the following changes to adopt
multimedia approach :
• The teacher has to be aware of the different media and their
availability.
• The teacher should be physically competent to use and
demonstrate the use of different media.
• The teacher should be skillful enough to make a judicious
choice of media and be competent enough to mix them
sequentially and in an orderly manner.
• The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator or manager of
activities and the teacher has to lead students for independent,
individualized learning.
Educational Implications of Multimedia
· Multimedia enables students to represent information
using several different media.
· Multimedia allows for self-pacing and discovery, as
students can take the time needed and choose the path of
learning making it meaningful.
· Multimedia can take into account different learning
styles. Some students learn by interpreting text, while
others require more graphical or aural representations.
· Hypermedia links allow students to organize
information in meaningful ways.
· Multimedia helps in development of higher order
thinking skills.
· Multimedia helps in developing group and
interpersonal skills.
· Multimedia provided the students the flexibility of
anywhere, ‘any time’ learning.
· Better communication between students via e-mail,
chat sessions etc., can encourage collaborative learning
and enhance student-teacher interaction.
· Multimedia helps students to learn the content in a
given discipline. It helps students to think effectively,
practice problem solving and decision making.
 Trends in
Methodology,
Pedagogy and
Evaluation
MARIAN SCARLET V. SILVANO
REPORTER
C120
 Methodological paradigm shifts
in knowledge construction
· Knowledge construction involves the gathering of information and
experiencing the world by the knowledge seeker.
· Educational systems are aiming to provide students with the social
values, attitudes and constructive experiences to enable them to
contribute actively to the new spaces of social life and work.
· There are three main philosophical frameworks under which learning
theories fall namely behaviorism, cognition and constructivism.
Behaviorism focuses on objectively observable
aspects of learning.
· Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning.
· Both behaviorism and cognitive theories can be
considered as approaches of realism.
Constructivism is a perspective in which learning is a process of
understanding, which leads to modifications in the behavior of the
learner due to experiences, a process of individually self-organizing
knowledge.
· Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs,
and skills an individual brings to the experience of learning
· Learning in the constructivist perspective is a process of constantly
adapting to situations, which consist of ever-changing relations
between subject, object and context.
· Education today is focused on breaking down complex
phenomena into abstract parts. For example, subjects and
different topics within subjects.
· Aspects of knowledge are considered in their singularity, and
distributed inductively to the student.
· Constructivism recognizes the construction of new
understanding as a combination of prior learning, new
information, and readiness to learn.
 There are important congruence among most
constructivists with regard to four central characteristics
believed to influence all learning :

· Learners construct their own learning.

· The dependence of new learning on students’ existing understanding.
· The critical role of social interaction.
· The necessity of authentic learning tasks for meaningful learning.
· Students develop knowledge through an active construction process.
· How information is presented and how learners are supported in the
process of constructing knowledge are of major significance.
 There are important congruence among most
constructivists with regard to four central
characteristics believed to influence all learning :

· Students’ current understandings provide the immediate context for

interpreting any new learning.
· Understanding is facilitated by exchanges that occur through social
interaction, through questioning and explaining, challenging and
offering timely support and feedback.
· Learning communities focus on helping group members learn, by
supporting one another through respectful listening and
encouragement.
 Reciprocal teaching is a successful method for teaching
reading comprehension in which metacognitive skills,
including question generation, prediction and summary
are taught through teacher modeling, followed by student
enactment of the same metacognitive behaviors.

· The goal is to encourage self-regulated learning, by helping learners develop

effective learning strategies and knowledge of when to use them. · The
constructivist teacher sets up problems and monitors student exploration, guides
the direction of student inquiry, and promotes new patterns of thinking.
· The constructivist teacher incorporates lessons of all types into classroom life
depending upon the analysis of the needs of the learners.
· Constructivists value asking big questions, giving students time to think, and
providing opportunities to explore to find answers.
 Ethnographic Methods
· Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions that
occur within groups, teams, organizations, and communities.
· The central aim of ethnography is to provide holistic insights into people’s
views and actions, as well as the nature of the location they inhabit, through the
collection of detailed observations and interviews.
· Ethnographers typically gather participant observations, necessitating direct
engagement and involvement with the world they are studying.
· Ethnographers need to record a variety of elements in their field notes, due to
the complex nature of social life.
 Ethnographic Methods
· During their observations, ethnographers routinely use informal or
conversational interviews, which allow them to discuss, probe
emerging issues, or ask questions about unusual events in a naturalistic
manner.
· Highly candid accounts from individuals can be elicited as the
interview technique is casual in nature.
· Reflexivity denotes the relationship the ethnographer shares with
participants and is a central element of ethnographic work.
 Advantages of ethnographic
research
· The use of participant observation enables ethnographers to generate
a rich understanding of social action and its subtleties in different
contexts.
· Participant observation also gives ethnographers opportunities to
gather empirical insights into social practices that are normally hidden
from the public gaze.
· Since it aims to generate holistic social accounts, ethnographic
research can identify, explore, and link social phenomena which, on
the surface, have little connection with each other.
 Disadvantages of ethnographic
research
· Owing to the relatively long periods of time ethnographers spend
talking to participants and observing actions, it can be difficult to
secure repeated access.
· Institutional gatekeepers would be concerned that the research may
cast their organisation in a poor light, due to the difficulty in access of
information.
· Obtaining formal approval from research ethicscommittees can be
complicated.
 Disadvantages of ethnographic
research
· The direct interaction that occurs between ethnographers and
participants during fieldwork can be regarded with suspicion.
· Comprehensively recording the multifaceted nature of social
action is a difficult task.
 Grounded Theory
· Grounded Theory is a research method that involves forming a
theory based on the gathered data. The data could be either
quantitative or qualitative and could be of any type.
· Grounded Theory came into existence when there was a wave of
criticism towards the fundamentalist and structural theories that were
deductive and speculative in nature.
· Sociologists and psychologists appreciated the grounded theory
because of its explicit and systematic conceptualization of the theory.
 Data acquisition
· In Grounded Theory methodology, qualitative and/or quantitative
data is collected in the same ways, using the same techniques as in
other research methodologies.
· The analysis of data collected in research is often referred to as
‘coding’.
· Data is coded differently depending on the purpose of the data and
the stage of the project.
· Three stages of data analysis are involved in Grounded Theory
namely open coding, axial coding and selective coding.
 Open coding
· Open coding is the process of selecting and naming categories from
the analysis of the data.
· Open coding is the initial stage in data acquisition and relates to
describing overall features of the phenomenon under study. · Variables
involved in the phenomenon are identified, labelled, categorized and
related together in an outline form.
· The properties of a category are described or dimensionalized at this
stage, which involves placing or locating the property along a
continuum within a range of possible values.
 Axial coding
Data are put together in new ways by utilising a system of coding that
seeks to identify causal relationships between categories.
· The aim of the coding paradigm is to make explicit connections
between categories and sub-categories.
· This process involves explaining and understanding relationships
between categories in order to understand the phenomenon to which
they relate. ·
 Selective coding
Selective coding involves the process of selecting and identifying the
core category and systematically relating it to other categories.
· Variables involved in the phenomenon are identified, labelled,
categorized and related together in an outline form.
· The properties of a category are described or dimensionalized at this
stage, which involves placing or locating the property along a
continuum within a range of possible values.
 Phenomenol
ogy
· Phenomenology is a philosophical practice of observing, recording, and
interpreting experience through vivid and detailed descriptions.
· The practice of phenomenology seeks to expose, uncover, or reveal universal
elements of human existence that structure the practical and particular empirical
situations.
· The practice of phenomenology is employed as a way of gathering and
interpreting the lived experiences that need to be understood.
· The phenomenological research tradition requires the researcher to acquire the
essence of the research process as this is opened up in the philosophical
literature.
 Phenomenol
ogy
· The phenomenological researcher is required to seek the essence of the
tradition, while also attuning his/her being towards the essence of a particular
phenomenon.
· In phenomenological research, the researcher points out the essential
understanding of the research approach as well as essential understanding of the
particular phenomenon of interest.
· The lived experience of the teacher-student relationship was identified as the
phenomenon of serious interest.
· The phenomenon of the teacher-student relationship exists as part of the
everyday experience in education and has been theorised over a long period of
time.
 Modern
Pedagogy
· Pedagogy is essentially a combination of knowledge and skills
required for effective teaching and can be traditionally defined as the
art of teaching that makes a difference in the intellectual and social
development of students.
· Modern pedagogies can be compactly defined as a new model of
learning partnerships between and among students and teachers,
aiming towards deep learning goals and enabled by pervasive digital
access.
 Modern
Pedagogy
· In the modern pedagogies, the foundation of teacher quality is
a teacher’s pedagogical capacity comprising their repertoire of
teaching strategies and their ability to form partnerships with
students in mastering the process of learning.
 Pedagogical
Approaches in
Teaching (2C2IR)
 Constructivist
• Approach
shows learners to be active in the process of constructing
meaning and knowledge rather than passively receiving
• fosters critical thinking and provides learners with a
learning environment that helps them make connections
with their
• Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.
 Collaborative
• requires learnersApproach
to work together towards a common goal.
This type of learning has been coiled in various names like
collective learning, learning communities, peer teaching,
peer learning or team learning; Learners engage in a
common task in which each individual depends on and is
accountable to each other,
 Integrative
• a learning theoryApproach
that describes a movement toward
integrated lessons helping students make connections across
curricula; making connections with a major, between
curriculum, co- curriculum, or between academic
knowledge and practice.
 Inquiry-based
•
Approach
is an approach of acquiring or obtaining information thru
investigation carried out by the learners who are eager to know the
phenomenon in question. It is used to engage learners of all ages to
learn by exploration and discovery. As learners investigate. they
build their understanding and create meaning and new knowledge
on a certain content/ topic. The process of inquiry begins with
gathering information and data through seeing, hearing, touching,
tasting, and smelling.
 Reflective Approach
• means looking at what the teacher and learners do in classroom,
thinking about why they do it, and analyzing about it if it works.
• This is a process of self- evaluation and self-observation.
 Pedagogical Transactions
integrating ICT
· Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can provide flexible and effective ways
for professional development for teachers, improve pre-service and in-service teacher training,
and connect teachers to the global teacher community.
· As new concepts of learning have evolved, teachers are expected to facilitate learning and
make it meaningful to individual learners rather than just to provide knowledge and skills.
· Modern developments of innovative technologies have provided new possibilities to teaching
professions, but at the same time have placed more demands on teachers to learn how to use
these new technologies in their teaching.
· ICT can be used as a core or a complementary means to the teacher training process. · There
are many examples of ICT, particularly Internet and Web-based communication technologies,
being used to support teachers' on-going professional development and networking.
 Cultural Integration
· Culture is reflected in students’ multiple social identities and their
ways of knowing and of being in the world.
· In order to ensure that all students are inspired to succeed in a culture
of high expectations for learning, schools and classrooms must be
responsive to culture.
· Culturally relevant teaching is a term used to describe teaching that
integrates a student’s background knowledge and community
experiences into the curriculum and the teaching and learning
experiences that take place in the classroom.
 Cultural Integration

There are three central tenets underpinning the pedagogy of culturally

relevant teaching :
• holding high expectations for all students,
• assisting students in the development of cultural competence, and
• guiding students to develop a critical cultural consciousness.
 Theorists write about three
dimensions which comprise
culturally responsive pedagogy :
· Institutional : The institutional dimension refers to the administration
and leadership of school systems, including the values developed and
reflected in school board policies and practices.
· Personal : The personal dimension encompasses the mindset of
culturally responsive educators and the practices they engage in, in
order to support the development of all students.
· Instructional : The instructional dimension includes knowing learners
well and considering the classroom practices which lead to a culturally
responsive classroom.
 Theorists write about three
dimensions which comprise
culturally responsive pedagogy :
· Institutional : The institutional dimension refers to the administration
and leadership of school systems, including the values developed and
reflected in school board policies and practices.
· Personal : The personal dimension encompasses the mindset of
culturally responsive educators and the practices they engage in, in
order to support the development of all students.
· Instructional : The instructional dimension includes knowing learners
well and considering the classroom practices which lead to a culturally
responsive classroom.
 New Trends in Examination

· Evaluation in educational context produces the data for

cognitive, affective and psychomotor objective.
· Examinations are traditionally confined to cognitive
objectives only.
· The education and examination system is based on equality,
not on equity, as per the modern Indian educational system.
 New Trends in Examination

· Universities, colleges and school typically conduct following

types of examinations –
· Semester Examinations: Universities typically follow a
semester wherein an academic year is divided into two terms.
 New Trends in Examination

The final assessment is on the basis of :

- Internal Assessments conducted by the respective colleges
and university department/ schools through periodic tests,
quizzes etc.
- External/ University End semester examination typically
conducted by the universities.
 New Trends in Examination

Different Universities have different weightages and patterns

of internal & external Evaluation. Therefore, each university
has a unique examination system process, which they have
shaped on the basis of university ordinances, constraints,
unique characteristics, resources available etc.
 Reforms in Examination
· The main aim of education is to enable all round development of the student and the
education process should be designed to develop three main domains of student personality
namely Cognitive domain, Affective domain and Psychomotor domain.
· The extent to which these three domains of personality have been developed and at which
level the aim of education is achieved can be evaluated means of examination.
· The present system of examination is only cognitive based in which affective and
psychomotor domains lag behind.
· The reconcilement in present way of education is according to 7Rs which include
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Recreation, Responsibility, Relationship, Rights. The
restructuring of the examination system should be done in a similar way.
 Reforms in Examination
· Lack of time is also one of the problems of the examination systems.
· The qualitative aspect of the examination and education system needs to be
improved rather than the quantitative aspect.
· The most suitable and affective way to improve the quality of any
examination system is where an objective pattern should be replaced with
composition of objective, short answer, essay type, comprehensive types of
questions.
· An examination system should be designed in such a way that it should
evaluate the complete quality and various domains of students which can result
in better screening of capabilities and overhauling the system of education.
 Open Book Examination

· An open book examination is one in which examinees are allowed to consult

their class notes, textbooks, and other approved material while answering
questions.
· Open book examination is common in law examinations, but in other
subjects, it is mostly no allowed.
· Open book examination is ideally suited to teaching programmes that
especially aim at developing the skills of critical and creative thinking.
· The teacher's role is viewed as facilitating the transfer of information from
the textbook to the students' minds.
 Open Book Examination

· What the student is expected to do is to understand this information,

retain it, and retrieve it during the final examination.
· Most conventional examinations test how much information the
students have been able to store in their minds. In order to cope with
this demand, students memorize the information in class notes and
textbooks, and transfer it to answer books during the examination.
· An alternative view is that teaching should not be transferring
information from the library or textbooks to the students' minds.
 Open Book Examination

Two types of open book examinations are the restricted type and the
unrestricted type.
· In the restricted type of open book examinations, students are
permitted to bring into the examination room one or more specific
documents approved by the course instructor.
· In the unrestricted type of open book examinations, students are
free to bring whatever they like.
 Online Examination
· Online examination system is designed for educational institutes
like schools, colleges and private institutes to conduct tests of their
students on a regular basis.
· Online examination is the process used to measure certain aspects
of information for a set purpose where the examination is delivered
via a computer connected to a network.
· Different types of online examinations contain elements of one or
more of the following components, depending on the examination’s
purpose: formative, diagnostic, or summative.
 Online Examination
· Instant and detailed feedback, as well as flexibility of location and time, are
two of the many benefits associated with online examinations.
· There are many resources available that provide online examinations, some
free of charge and others that charge fees or require a membership.
· Online examinations are used to determine the knowledge gained by students
and to determine if adjustments need to be made to either the teaching or the
learning process.
· Online examination is used primarily to measure cognitive abilities,
demonstrating what has been learned after a particular educational event has
occurred, such as the end of an instructional unit or chapter.
 Uses of Online Examinations

· Pre-Testing : Prior to the teaching of a lesson or concept, a student can

complete an online pretest to determine their level of knowledge.
· Formative Assessment : Formative assessment is used to provide feedback
during the learning process. In online assessment situations, objective
questions are posed, and feedback is provided to the student either during or
immediately after the assessment.
· Summative Assessment : Summative assessments provide a quantitative
grade and are often given at the end of a unit or lesson to determine that the
learning objectives have been met.
 Uses of Online Examinations

· Practice Testing : With the ever-increasing use of high-stakes testing in the educational
arena, online practice tests are used to give students an edge.
· Surveys : Online surveys may be used by educators to collect data and feedback on
student attitudes, perceptions or other types of information that might help improve the
instruction.
· Evaluations : This type of survey allows facilitators to collect data and feedback on any
type of situation where the course or experience needs justification or improvement.
· Performance Testing : The user shows what they know and what they can do. This type
of testing is used to show technological proficiency, reading comprehension, math skills,
etc. This assessment is also used to identify gaps in student learning.
 Differentiated Assessment
· Differentiated instruction or differentiated learning is a technique used
in some classrooms that caters to the individual needs of each student.
· Teachers use a variety of different activities and methods to teach their
classroom. Differentiated instruction gives students options on how to
take in information, and ideas. It also can help them show the teacher
what they have learned in other ways than just taking a test.
· Differentiated learning is proactive, qualitative, rooted in assessment, a
blend of individual and group instruction and student centered.
 Issues With Differentiation
· Differentiation is seen as a great advancement by many educators
but not everyone agrees with the enthusiasm.
· Differentiated learning requires constant assessment and
evaluation to understand where students are at, what is working and
which students need different tools.
· A lot of issues have been raised over organizing classes and
providing measured assessment for differentiated classrooms. ·
People assume that creating lessons that use a variety of teaching
methods should cover every student’s areas of struggle.
 Issues With Differentiation
· One major issue when trying to implement differentiated
instruction is the student’s behavior, which can hinder a teacher’s
ability to assess a students’ progress during a series of lessons
designed around student’s participation.
· At the same time it is expected that these students meet the same
expectations as the rest of the class.
· Teachers are sometimes not being able to address everyone’s
learning needs while also meeting the standards set for the class.
 Issues With Differentiation

· Differentiated teaching is not fair to students as standardized tests

and post education are not differentiated.
· Differentiated instruction and assessment take too much time.
· Differentiated instruction is difficult both in small as well as large
classrooms.
· Not enough resources are available for differentiated instruction.
 Assessment Strategies

· Self-Assessment : Through this strategy the student can

reflect and determine if the learning style they have been
favouring is really working for them or if they should try
something different.
· If the teacher prompts the student's writing with questions it
can be a valuable tool for the teacher to discover what the
student is learning and what they are missing or struggling
with.
· This can be done through the students writing a self-
 Assessment Strategies

Performance Tasks : The students are required to not only

remember the knowledge they have learned, but also to apply it to
real-world circumstances.
· For students who are not yet ready for that level of work these
activities provide concrete and straight-forward elements to prevent
frustration.
 Assessment Strategies

· Diagnostic Assessments :
Diagnostic assessments allow the teacher to know what
previous knowledge the students have and if there are any
weak areas in that previous knowledge. Diagnostic
assessments information is not used for grades.
 Assessment Strategies
· Formative assessments : These assessments occur as
learning is happening so that the teacher can keep a tab on
which students are understanding and which are not.
· It is important that formative assessments have detailed,
specific feedback so that the student knows what areas they
need to improve on.
· Formative assessments are not often used for grading
purposes.
 Assessment Strategies
· Summative assessments :
Summative assessments are used at the very end to
determine what a student has learned. It will indicate to the
teacher whether or not a student achieved the learning
objectives.
· The teacher can use summative assessments to determine
which teaching strategies worked and which ones didn't.
Summative assessments are graded.
 Strategies of assessment of
students with learning
disabilities
· One of the concerns in regards to assessing students with
learning disabilities is making sure that the measurement of
information obtained is valid and reliable.
· This is something that has to be kept in mind when doing
assessments not only with diverse individuals, but students
in general.
 Strategies for assessment of
students with learning
disabilities are :
• Contextual Assessment: This refers to the student’s
environmental condition in school and in other settings.
• Researching school records to determine history.
• Interviews of significant others in their lives: allows for
excellent communication as well as accurate and relevant
information. However, there are discrepancies between what
people say and what is observed in the classroom.
 Strategies for assessment of
students with learning
disabilities are :

• Observations: precise measurements of academic and social

problems can be planned in a systematic way so that appropriate
samples can be obtained.
 Evaluation of Curriculum
· Teachers often find themselves having to evaluate curriculum
materials, which are devised to help pupils learn.
· It will be important to use the materials with pupils and to take into
account pupils' actions and reactions and will be more relevant
when the intentions of the materials are in terms of reasoning skills,
understanding, attitudes and values rather than specific practical
skills or factual knowledge.
· Evaluation process is the process of gathering and reporting
information that could help to guide decision making in an
educational programme and curriculum development.
The criteria for making the evaluation can be organised into six
categories namely :
• Content
• Organization and structure
• Student experiences
• Teacher support material
• Student assessment materials
• Programme development and implementation.
· Once a developed curriculum is implemented in
schools, appropriate evaluation procedures must be
devised to examine the effectiveness of the
curriculum.
· A new curriculum once implemented in schools is in
constant progress until terminated.
Evaluation of curriculum has three main objectives :
• To detect or predict defects in the procedural design
or its implementation during stage.
• To provide feedback about the implementation of
the planned activities.
• To maintain a record of the procedure as it occurs.
 Evaluation of Pedagogy
· The basic pedagogical process can be defined as a systematic
transfer of knowledge or skills from a mentor to a learner.
· Pedagogical process comprehends variety of different factors, such
as motivation, individual’s needs, learning materials, learners learning
style, instructors teaching style, etc.
· Analysis of pre-knowledge and post-knowledge exams is required
for evaluation.
· Pedagogical process is complex and a thorough measurement of
pedagogical effectiveness is needed.
Listed below are examples of different evaluation methods :
• Questionnaire survey
• Interviews
• Pre-test and post test
• Products
• Focus groups
• User diaries
• Online discussion
• Logs of messages or web 'hits'
 Meta Evaluation

Meta-evaluation is a systematic and formal evaluation of evaluations, evaluation systems or

use of specific evaluation tools in order to guide planning / management of evaluations within
organizations.
· A meta-evaluation can be used for ongoing evaluations (formative) or report on the strengths
and weaknesses of previous evaluations (summative).
· Meta-evaluation describes aggregating information from several individual evaluations and
acts as a systematic tool for the quality control of evaluation studies.
· Meta-evaluation should be part of an open dialogue between various parties in the evaluation
process. Making evaluation as transparent as possible enhances the preconditions of
organisational learning through meta-evaluation.
 Issues of Assessment
· Assessment results have important implications for instruction as the primary
aim of assessment is to foster learning of worthwhile academic content for all
students.
· School communities use assessment results in a formative way to determine
how well they are meeting instructional goals and how to alter curriculum and
instruction so that goals can be better met.
· But unless the content of assessment and the format of assessment match what
is taught and how it is taught, the results are meaningless, if not potentially
harmful.
· There is potential for harm when decisions affecting students’ futures are being
made based on results of assessments made with tools that are not appropriate for
the purpose.
 Quality Concerns
· Assessment is a central element in the overall quality of teaching and
learning in higher education.
· Well designed assessment sets clear expectations, establishes a
reasonable workload (one that does not push students into rote
reproductive approaches to study), and provides opportunities for
students to self-monitor, rehearse, practise and receive feedback.
The ideas and strategies in the assessing students’ learning support
three inter-related objectives for quality :
• Assessment that guides and encourages effective approaches to
learning.
• Assessment that validly and reliably measures expected learning
outcomes, in particular the higher-order learning that characterizes
higher education.
• Assessment and grading that defines and protects academic
standards.
 The following are checklist of indicators used
for quality in student assessment :

• Assessment is treated by staff and students as an integral and

prominent component of the entire teaching and learning process
rather.
• The powerful motivating effect of assessment requirements on
students is understood and assessment tasks are designed to foster
valued study habits.
• There is a faculty/departmental policy that guides individuals’
assessment practices. Subject assessment is integrated into an
overall plan for course assessment.
• There is a clear alignment between expected learning outcomes,
what is taught and learnt, and the knowledge and skills assessed.
• Assessment tasks assess the capacity to analyze and synthesis new
information and concepts rather than simply recall information
previously presented.
• A variety of assessment methods is employed so that the
limitations of particular methods are minimized.
• Assessment tasks are designed to assess relevant generic skills as
well as subject-specific knowledge and skills.
• There is a steady progression in the complexity and demands of assessment
requirements in the later years of courses.
• There is provision for student choice in assessment tasks and weighting at
certain times.
• Student and staff workloads are considered in the scheduling and design of
assessment tasks.
• Excessive assessment is avoided. Assessment tasks are designed to sample
student learning.
• Assessment tasks are weighted to balance the developmental (‘formative’)
and judgmental (‘summative’) roles of assessment. Early low-stakes, low-
weight assessment is used to provide students with feedback.
• Grades are calculated and reported on the basis of clearly
articulated learning outcomes and criteria for levels of achievement.
• Students receive explanatory and diagnostic feedback as well as
grades.
• Assessment tasks are checked to ensure there are no inherent biases
that may disadvantage particular student groups.
• Plagiarism is minimized through careful task design, explicit
education and appropriate monitoring of academic honesty.