Introduction to Prose

LITERATURES IN ENGLISH UNIT TWO

FACILITATOR: SHIRLEY HENRY-RICHARDS
What is Prose?
Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It
applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical
structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of
traditional poetry.
Normal everyday speech is spoken in prose, and most people think
and write in prose form. Prose comprises of full grammatical
sentences, which consist of paragraphs, and forgoes aesthetic
appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to
be the most reflective of conversational speech.
Example of a Poetry Verse vs. the
Prose Form
“The woods are lovely, dark and deep.
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.”
Robert Frost
Example of a Poetry Verse vs. the
Prose Form
Following is the same sentiment written in prose form:
“The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze
into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like lingering here
longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep, and much
distance to cover before I settle in for the night, or else I will be late
for all of them.”
The above paragraph is conveying a similar message, but it is
conveyed in ordinary language, without a formal metrical structure
to bind it.
Some Common Types of Prose
Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact, though it may
contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples include biographies and
essays.
Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical.
Examples are novels.
Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited, and which
employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are
legends and tales.
Prose Poetry: A literary work that exhibits poetic quality – using emotional
effects and heightened imagery – but which are written in prose instead of
verse.
Forms of Prose
The most common forms are:
Novels
Novellas
Short Stories
Novels
Novels, as the longest form of fiction, give a story plenty of breathing room.
Like a short story or novella, a novel presents characters in conflict
encountering a series of obstacles. The characters either overcome the
obstacles to meet their goals, or they fail to do so and arrive at a resolution
at the end.

Characters in novels may be more developed than those in shorter works,

and they may transform more significantly over the course of the book.
Novels also have the page count necessary to create subplots and include
minor characters that add texture and depth to the story.
Novellas
Novellas, publishing's neglected middle child, historically received
scant attention from the industry. Because shorter word counts make
for thinner books with lower cover prices, it was difficult for
publishers to make a profit on novellas. However, with the advent of
e-readers, novellas are enjoying a surge in popularity. Novellas are
the right length for a tale that is more layered and complex than a
short story but doesn't require the larger cast of characters or epic
scope of a novel.
Short Stories
A short story has a more limited focus than novels or novellas, and the
plot is usually tied to one specific chain of events. Because the reader
must identify with a character quickly to become engaged, the tale is
often told from the protagonist's point of view. Techniques that are
effective in a novel, such as varying narrators from chapter to chapter,
are not feasible in a short story. Language in short stories is often
symbolic and rich in subtext as authors strive to make every word count.
Students Research: Types of Fiction
Gothic
Picaresque
Historical
Science
Detective
Epistolary
Stream of Consciousness
Bildungsroman
Fables
Elements of Prose
Theme
Setting
Plot
Character
Style
Language
Point of View
Looking at Elements: Theme

Theme refers to the overall idea of what is a story all about.

Ideas, or thoughts that underlie a major literary work is called a
theme. The theme is something that became the basis of the story,
something that permeates the story, or something that is the subject
matter in the story.
Setting
Setting is all the information, instructions, reference in respect of time, space,
atmosphere, and the situation of the events in the story. Setting can be divided
into three main elements:
Setting of place - referring to the location of the events recounted in a work of
fiction.
Setting of time - dealing with the problem of 'when' the occurrence of the
events recounted in a work of fiction.
Social setting - refer to matters relating to social behavior in a place that is told
in a work of fiction. Social background could include living habits, customs,
traditions, beliefs, outlook on life, ways of thinking and being, and social status.
Setting contd.
More important, the reader must consider whether the details of
time, place, social milieu, emotional atmosphere, are functional —
whether and how they contribute to the unfolding of happenings, to
the representation of character, or to the achievement of the work
as a whole.
 Setting can be used…
1. as a shaper of events (in mystery or horror stories, esp.) In stories of men in conflict with nature, the setting
(nature) often becomes a character, usually the antagonist. (In Jack London, for example, or Hemingway’s The
Old Man and the Sea). In a hospital, for example, we expect stories about doctors and sick people; in a coal
mine, we expect a story about miners. We don’t expect a sailor to enter a coal mine.

2. as an adjunct to the plot and characterizations. It shows important changes and developments. Moving from
one place to another shows movement in action;

3. it adds an emotional quality to the work, an atmosphere or feel, a mood, or contrasts.  Consider the
differences between a crowded party and the back seat of a taxi; a kitchen and a confessional; a graveyard and
a library.

4. as an external reflection of the internal state of the character.

5. as a symbol related to the action and its deeper significance.

Is there a relationship between Setting
and Character ?
•Setting can be determined by character. If we want to write
about sailors, we will likely be at sea.
•Setting can determine character. If we move a man from a
university to a battle-field, his character will change.
Plot
Plot is the sequence or series of incidents in a story. Plot can be constructed based
on three things:

a.         The order time (chronology) - called a linear plot.

b.       The causal relationship (causal) - called causal flow.

c.     The theme of the story. The flow is so-called thematic groove. In the grooved
thematic story, every event is as if it stood alone. If one episode is removed the
story can still be understood.
The literary plot consists of three
parts:
1. The beginning or exposition. The author must present sufficient information
about characters and situations for us to care about the outcome of the people
involved. This portion introduces relationships among people and people, and
people and things. It also locates the story in time and place.
2. The Middle or body. The "proof" of the story, the happenings. This involves
conflict, and/or complications. This section shows cause and effect, a necessary
element for literature. It also contains such aspects as tension, suspense,
reversal, foreshadowing, etc.
3. The End or conclusion. This must be a satisfying resolution of the events,
problems, conflicts, etc. It need not be a happy ending, but it usually leaves
nothing unresolved — unless this is the intent.
Arrangement of events in the plot:
            A. Introduction

            B. Conflict

            C. Climax

            D. Falling action

            E. Resolution
Gustav Freytag, the 19th Century German playwright and novelist highlighted seven parts he
considered necessary to storytelling: exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling
action, resolution, and denouement (French for “the ending”).
Freytag’s Pyramid
7 elements of dramatic structure in
Freytag’s Pyramid:
1. Exposition: The storyteller sets the scene and the character’s background.

2. Inciting Incident: The character reacts to something that has happened, and it

starts a chain reaction of events.

3. Rising Action: The story builds. There is often a complication, which means the

problem the character tried to solve gets more complex.

4. Climax: The story reaches the point of greatest tension between the protagonist
and antagonist (or if there is only one main character, the darkness or lightness
of that character appears to take control).
7 elements of dramatic structure in
Freytag’s Pyramid:
5. Falling Action: The story shifts to action that happens as a result of the climax,
which can also contain a reversal (when the character shows how they are
changed by events of the climax).

6. Resolution: The character solves the problem or conflict.

7. Denouement: French for “the ending,” the denouement is often happy if it’s

a comedy, and dark and sad if it’s a tragedy
Types of Plot
A. Circular: Flashback

b. Linear: Foreshadowing

c. In medias res: In the middle of the things

Functions of the Plot
1. Revelation of character: the character(s) remains unchanged by events, is static,
but more is learned about him.

2. The character in a state of revolution, is changed by the events of the plot. (e.g.
“The Necklace,”)

3. Characters are necessary adjuncts, but action dominates.

It may be the case that we become more interested in the events than in the
characters. Thus we must consider what it is about these events that reveals or
changes the personalities ( the literary characters) of the persons in the story. We
may focus on the pattern of events which either reveals or changes the characters.
 Factors which contribute to plot
development
There are some important factors which contribute to the dynamic flow of the plot:

Probability factor. That is, the events of the story should not always be realistic but it makes
sense.

Surprise factor. That is, the events should not be directly predictable / recognized by the reader.

Coincidence factor. Namely unexpected events occur, things happen by chance.

The combination or variation of the three factors cause the flow to become dynamic. The thing
that should be avoided in the groove is aberration (digresi). Aberration is the events or episodes
that are not associated with the core story or deviate from the subject matter at hand in the
story.
Character
The person/thing around whom the action is centred.
The major character in a work is usually the protagonist, i.e., the
leading character or principal figure, but he or she may be the
antagonist, i.e., the one who opposes and actively competes with
another character.
Functions of characters
• A character may prepare for a particular action. (The
introduction of a dishonest character, e.g., may prepare for a
deception, a crime, etc.)
• A character may prepare the audience for a change — a reversal
— which is at the heart of the pattern of happenings.
• A character may offer signs of the progress and the completion of
the narrative pattern.
• A character may carry out a necessary function in the story.
Functions of characters contd.
Some qualities are given merely to make a character "lifelike"; some
characters may be given traits which make them attractive or
unattractive to the reader, 'better than' the reader, or 'worse than'
the reader. One goal of the writer may be to have the reader identify
with the character, or to see in the character someone the reader
knows. But whatever qualities the character has, they have been
deliberately given by the author to give meaning to the total work. In
some short stories, characterization is the purpose of the author
More often a writer tries to direct the reader into involvement with
the characters, to identify as self, or through someone we know.
 Types of Characters – Students'
Research
 The main character (Protagonist)

 Character opposing the main character (Antagonist)

 Static or flat character

 Changing or dynamic character

 Confidante character

 Foil character

 Stock character

 Round character

 Evil character or villain

Style
Style is the characteristic manner of expression in prose or
verse; how a particular writer says things. The analysis and
assessment of style begins with an examination of a writer's
choice of words, construction of sentences and paragraphs;
indeed of every conceivable aspect of his language and the
way he uses it.
Style involves much more than word choice. It is the tone
and voice of the author.
Looking at writer’s diction
To investigate language we must look first at words. What kind of diction does
the author use? nouns, verbs, adjectives? What kind of vocabulary? long or
short words; concrete or abstract words? Do the words evoke emotions? What
kind? (anger, sorrow, fear, joy) Are they symbolic? Is the language descriptive or
suggestive only? Are the words simple or sophisticated? Jargon or slang?
Then we can look at phrases. What figures of speech might the author use? (e.g.
metaphor: one thing is described in terms of another, as though it is another:
heart of a lion; simile: one thing is presented as being like another: delicate as a
butterfly.)
Finally we can look at sentences. Are they long or short? Rhythmic? Are they
simple or complex? Do they vary in length? Are they all the same?
Functions of writer’s language
What purpose does the writer aim for with the choice and use of
language? Is the writing descriptive? Does the writer paint a picture?
Or is the writing suggestive only, leaving it to the reader’s
imagination. Does she use lots of words; is she economical or
minimalist? How does the writer use dialogue, if at all?
Functions of writer’s language contd.
The use of language in the consideration of style is also important in characterization. Not
just the description of a character, but the revelation of a character can be shown, for
example, through dialogue. Does a character call her female parent Mother, Mum,
Mumsie, Mom, Mommy, Ma, Mother Dear, Mother Darling, or Anna? This is an indication
of their relationship. Do characters use slang, jargon, foul language? This also goes to their
characterization.
Does the writer use indirect discourse? And if so, to what effect? Consider the differences
among the following:
Tom said that Mary had been shot.
Tom shouted, "Mary's been shot!"
Tom cried, "I've shot Mary."
Mary gasped, "I've been shot!"
Functions of writer’s language contd.
The author’s grammar is an important part of style, as well. Does he
use passive voice, the subjunctive, sentence fragments? To what
effect? What narrative techniques does he use?
The stream-of-consciousness technique, for example, attempts to re-
create the natural flow of a character's (not the author’s) thoughts.
People's thoughts do not usually flow in a neat, organized manner.
Instead, they often proceed in a disorganized flow of insights,
memories, flashbacks, and reflections. When a writer uses the
stream-of-consciousness technique, he attempts to capture the way
the mind works by showing the random movement and natural flow.
Tone
Tone is the reflection of a writer's attitude towards her readers or
towards her material; it is the manner, mood, and moral outlook
presented in her work. Even, perhaps, the way her personality pervades
the work.
It is the counterpart of tone of voice in speech. It may be friendly,
sincere, honest, skeptical, ironic, detached, intimate, pompous, etc.
Because works of literature (of most art) can be considered in two ways
—as an emotional expression of the author, and as an artistic
embodiment of a meaning or set of meanings—tone gets at both the
emotion and the meaning.
Point of View
There are basically three different kinds of point of view:
 1st person limited
 3rd person limited
 3rd person omniscient
 First Person Limited POV

The narrator may be a character in the story telling the story from the first person, personal point of
view. Grammatically this involves the use of "I".

This gives immediacy and authority, but it is also limited in that the author must make the narrator-
character credible, or we will not identify with or believe what we are told.
The narrator-character may be the main character or a minor (secondary) character

He may have opinions and emotions, with which we, as readers, may or may not agree.

With this point of view, the reader may be interested in the narrator as much as the plot, or other
characters. (Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is a classic example.)

This narrator, as a witness, can see what people do and say, but only that. As readers, we know what the
personal participant narrator thinks, but we cannot know the thoughts of other characters unless they
are spoken.
 Third Person Limited

This uses a more objective grammar, and is less personal.

•The speaker is like a camera which records the events. Like the first, it is limited in
that we get only what this character sees, knows, thinks, or perhaps what he thinks
others think.
•This point of view is often objective, and sometimes is called the dramatic point of
view. The relationship is objective rather than subjective: the narrator cannot see into
the minds of the other characters but can relate what they say or do.
• Sometimes the narrator, from this point of view, is able to tell what the main
character thinks as well as does, but no others.
•With this point of view there is not the immediacy of the first, and we do not usually
become as interested in the narrator. But it does have intimacy.
 Third Person Omniscient

When the narrator is an omniscient story teller:

 He knows everything: what people do, see, say, and think.

 As omniscient, he may be intrusive or invisible. Thackeray, Austen, Dickens and other

nineteenth century authors talk to the readers. (As does Solzhenitsyn in the 20th.)

 The narrator is not involved in the story, not a character, and tells the story grammatically
in the 3rd person. Thus, unlike the first two, it loses intimacy. But it gains authority.

 This type of point of view is the most common in recent and contemporary prose fiction.
Spend some time reviewing the
contents.