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COMPUTER NETWORKS

B.Tech III Year – I Sem

Unit 1
 Unit I
• Network hardware, Network software
• OSI, TCP/IP Reference models,
• Example Networks: ARPANET, Internet.
• Physical Layer: Guided Transmission media: twisted pairs, coaxial
cable, fiber optics, Wireless transmission.
• Wireless Networks – Packet Radio Network,
• Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11b,
• Wireless Application Protocols (WAP) & WML and Virtual Private
Network VPN Technology.

2
 What is a Computer Network?

• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other

through wires, optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among
various devices.
• In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of
networks that vary from simple to complex level.

3
 Introduction
• An interconnected collection of autonomous computers is called a computer network.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange the
information.
• If one computer can forcibly start, stop and control another one, the computers are not
autonomous.
• A system with one control unit and many slaves is not a network, nor is a large computer
with remote printers and terminals.
• In a Distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous computers is
transparent(i.e., not visible) to the user.
• It is up to the operating system to select the best processor, find and transport all the files
to that processor, and put the results in the appropriate place.
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 Cont…

A network is a set of devices connected by media links.

A node can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending and receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.

The links connecting the devices are often called communication channels.

Networks use Distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple

computers.
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 Uses of Computer Network
• Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the
physical location of the resource and user.
• Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A
server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the
server remotely.
• Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
• E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.

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 Accessing Remote databases
Accessing Remote programs
Value added communication facility
Marketing and sales
Financial services
Manufacturing
Applications Electronic message
Directory services
Information services
Teleconferencing
Cellular telephone
Cable television

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Network Hardware

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Components of Computer Network:

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 Network Interface Card (NIC)
• NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
• The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use
this address to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct
destination.
• There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
• Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is
made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
• Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

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 Repeaters, Hubs, and Switches
• Repeaters, hubs and switches connect network devices together so that they can
function as a single segment.
• A repeater receives a signal and regenerates it before re-transmitting so that it can
travel longer distances.

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 Hub
• Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices.
• When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to
the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.
• A hub is a multiport repeater having several input/output ports, so that input at any
port is available at every other port.

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 Switches
• Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device.
• A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it sends
the message to the device for which it belongs to.
• A switch receives data from a port, uses packet switching to resolve the destination device and
then forwards the data to the particular destination, rather than broadcasting it as a hub.
• Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.

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 Bridges
• A bridge connects two separate Ethernet network segments.
• It forwards packets from the source network to the destined network.

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 Gateways
• A gateway connects entirely different networks that work upon different protocols.
• It is the entry and the exit point of a network and controls access to other
networks.

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 Cables and connectors
• Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There
are three types of cables:
• Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or
more.
• Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable
is more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data
transmission speed.
• Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data
using light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other
cables. It is more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the
government level.

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 Network Cables
• Network cables are the transmission media to transfer data from one device to
another.
• A commonly used network cable is category 5 cable with RJ – 45 connector, as
shown in the image below:

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 Router
• Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet.
• The router is mainly used to connect the distinct networks
or connect the internet to multiple computers.
• A router is a connecting device that transfers data packets
between different computer networks.
• Typically, they are used to connect a PC or an
organization’s LAN to a broadband internet connection.
• They contain RJ-45 ports so that computers and other
devices can connect with them using network cables.

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 Modem
• Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone
line.

• A modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard.

• A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.

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Network software

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 What Is Network Software?
• Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of software that
streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer
networks.

•  Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system.

• It helps administrators and security personnel reduce network complexities, and manage,
monitor, and better control network traffic.

• Network software plays a crucial role in managing a network infrastructure and simplifying IT
operations by facilitating communication, security, content, and data sharing.

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 Functions of network software
• User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the
network. This is particularly useful when hiring or relieving

• File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and

control user access to that data.

• Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.

• Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and

preventing data breaches.

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Components of Network Software

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 Control layer
• The control layer lies at the center of the architecture and is one of the most important
components of the three layers.
• You could call it the brain of the whole system.
• Also called the controller or the control plane, this layer also includes the network
control software and the network operating system within it.
• It is the entity in charge of receiving requirements from the applications and translating
the same to the network components.
• The control of the infrastructure layer or the data plane devices is also done via the
controller.
• In the control layer is the intermediary that facilitates communication between the top
and bottom layers through APIs interfaces.

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 Infrastructure layer

• The infrastructure layer, also called the data plane, consists of the actual network
devices (both physical and virtual) that reside in this layer.

• They are primarily responsible for moving or forwarding the data packets after
receiving due instructions from the control layer.

• In simple terms, the data plane in the network architecture components physically
handles user traffic based on the commands received by the controller.

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Types of Network Software

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 Types of Network Software
1. Network storage software
• Network storage software allows businesses to utilize a standard interface that
manages countless databases between users or clients. It serves as a good manager
of access between various departments or essential communities within an
organization. This way, anybody having access can view or retrieve information
with just a click, and at the same time, security concerns are also taken care of.
2. Data archiving software
• As organizations grow and networks evolve in size, it gets especially tricky to
save data appropriately. In addition to that, data that needs to be stored increases at
a rapid pace, and its management gets costlier. In such a situation, data archiving
software is a perfect choice.

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 Types of Network Software
3. Patch management software
• It is a nightmare for IT employees to install updates on each device individually. The
patch management software aids in the smoother management of updates across
numerous devices on the network through the installation of patches. This makes the
process more seamless and enables each machine to download a patch managed by
central software and run updates automatically. Patch management software is the more
hassle-free and effective way to perform continuous updates across devices and systems
in an organization.
4. Security surveillance software
• A majority of network software focuses on data storage and linking devices. This is
where security surveillance software comes into the picture. It monitors and connects the
various security solutions within a network. Specific software is ideal for large networks
as it effortlessly links throughout locations and provides credible browser-based live and
recorded footage to an organization.

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 Types of Network Software
5. Asset management software
• One of the most challenging tasks in any organization is to keep the network up
and running efficiently. Achieving this demands greater visibility of the network
infrastructure as well as regular tracking and monitoring of essential metrics.
Compared to most of its counterparts, asset management software operates from a
centralized server room or hub and is not connected to any hardware.
6. Deployment and migration software
• Managing a network comes with regular upgrades or movement of assets, and this
can sometimes become a herculean task. The use of deployment and migration
software aids organizations in making processes such as upgrading systems
hassle-free. The software provides an interface that enables easy monitoring of
any deployment or data movement between the hardware and databases within the
network.

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 Types of Network Software
7. Printer and fax software
• Printers and fax machines are indispensable equipment for any working
organization. Standard options such as Wi-Fi printing might not always be the best
choice, especially for big corporations or schools that span across many floors.
This software provides an easy-to-use interface that enables the undertaking and
maintenance of multiple tasks.
8. Network management software
• Network monitoring software might have some basic options plugged in to
troubleshoot, network management software is equipped to manipulate and
modify network performance for the better. These software applications are hosted
by several industry-leading brands.

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 Networks

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 Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.

Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to
the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

• Peer-To-Peer network
• Client/Server network

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 Peer-to-Peer network

• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the

computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if
the computer with the resource is down.

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 Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Network:

• It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

• If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.

• It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

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 Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Network:

• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized

system.

• Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different

locations.

• It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

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 Client/Server Network

• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end

users called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video,
etc. from a central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server.

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 Advantages of Client/Server network

• A Client/Server network contains the centralized system.

• Therefore we can back up the data easily.
• A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
• Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
• It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

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 Disadvantages of Client/Server network

• Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.

• A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the

clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.

• It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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 What is Topology?

• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components

are interconnected to each other.

• There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a

network.
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 Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
• All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has
been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message
is broadcast to all the stations.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
• CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost.
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 Bus Topology
• CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost.
• There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two
nodes send the messages simultaneously.
• CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect
the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the
data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
• CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid
the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy,
then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively
reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the
collision".

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 Advantages of Bus topology
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.

• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.

• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and

troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.

• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
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 Disadvantages of Bus topolog

• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

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 Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to
the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
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 Working of Token passing

• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.

• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches.
• Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
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 Advantages of Ring topology

• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without

bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

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 Disadvantages of Ring topology

• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the

cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

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 Star Topology

• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected

to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star

topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
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 Advantages of Star topology
• Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to
bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on
the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of
the most popular Star topology networks.

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 Disadvantages of Star topology

• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the

connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.

• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of

routing is required.

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 Tree Topology

• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.

• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the descendants of the root node.

• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

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 Advantages of Tree topology

• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

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 Disadvantages of Tree topology

• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes

difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.

• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
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 Mesh Topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
• Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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 Advantages of Mesh topology

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown
will not affect the communication between connected computers.

• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

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 Disadvantages of Mesh topology

• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a

router and more transmission media than other topologies.

• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to

maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.

• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.
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 Hybrid Topology

• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer

the data.

• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology.

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 Advantages of Hybrid topology

• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of
the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

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 Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

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Network Types

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 Computer Network Types
• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)

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 LAN(Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

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 70

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 PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within
a range of 10 meters.

• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.

• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.

• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
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 72

PAN(Personal
Area Network)

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 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.

• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.

• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.

• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 73

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 74
 Uses of Metropolitan Area Network

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

• It can be used in a college within a city.

• It can also be used for communication in the military

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 75

 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.

• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 76

 77

WAN

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU

 Advantages of Wide Area Network
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose
if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and
other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases
the productivity of our company
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 78
 Disadvantages of Wide Area Network
• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN
and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet
which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used.
Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect
from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves
the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is
difficult.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 79

 Internetwork

• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer

network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local
addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.

• An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government

computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.

• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.

• The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 80

 Types of Internetwork
1. Extranet:
• An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission Control
protocol and internet protocol.
• It is used for information sharing.
• The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials.
• An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking.
• It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks.
• An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the external network.
2. Intranet:
• An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission Control protocol
and internet protocol.
• An intranet belongs to an organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or
members.
• The main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees.
• An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 81

 Intranet advantages
• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of
the organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-
saving.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the
intranet. The information is distributed among the employees of the organization
and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be
connected to another device with different architecture.
• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the
cost.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 82
INTERNET HISTORY

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 83

 INTERNET HISTORY
The brief history makes it clear how the Internet has evolved from a private network to a
global one in less than 40 years.

Early History

• There were some communication networks, such as telegraph and telephone networks,
before 1960.

• These networks were suitable for constant-rate communication at that time, which means
that after a connection was made between two users, the encoded message (telegraphy) or
voice (telephony) could be exchanged.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 84

 ARPANET
• In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone devices.
• Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another.
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Défense (DOD) was
interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share
their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
• In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas
for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), a small network of
connected computers.
• The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be
attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor (IMP).
• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each other.
• Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 85

 Birth of the Internet
• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Inter netting Project.
• TCPI/P Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end
delivery of data.
• This was a new version of NCP.
• This paper on transmission control protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
• IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher level
functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
• The new combination became known as TCPIIP.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 86

 MILNET

• In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks:

• Military Network (MILNET) for military users and ARPANET for non

military users.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 87

 CSNET

• Another milestone in Internet history was the creation of CSNET in

1981.

• Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the

National Science Foundation (NSF).

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 88

 NSFNET

• With the success of CSNET, the NSF in 1986 sponsored the National

Science Foundation Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected

five supercomputer centers located throughout the United States.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 89

 ANSNET
• In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of
supporting the rapidly increasing Internet traffic.
• Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon, filled the void by forming a nonprofit
organization called Advanced Network & Services (ANS) to build a new, high-
speed
• Internet backbone called Advanced Network Services Network (ANSNET).
Internet Today
• Today, we witness a rapid growth both in the infrastructure and new applications.
• The Internet today is a set of pier networks that provide services to the whole
world.
• What has made the internet so popular is the invention of new applications.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 90

 World Wide Web

• The 1990s saw the explosion of Internet applications due to the emergence of the
World Wide Web (WWW).

• The Web was invented at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee.

• This invention has added the commercial applications to the Internet.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 91

 Multimedia

• Recent developments in the multimedia applications such as voice over IP

(telephony), video over IP (Skype), view sharing (YouTube), and television over

IP (PPLive) has increased the number of users and the amount of time each user

spends on the network.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 92

 Peer-to-Peer Applications

• Peer-to-peer networking is also a new area of communication with a lot of

potential.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 93

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 94

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the services
provided by one or more lower level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware.
• Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model. Figure 1.19 shows both
configurations.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 95

 Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in communication between two hosts,
we assume that we want to use the suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown in Figure 1.20.

LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 96
 What is a protocol?

• It is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two

computers must follow in order to exchange messages.
• This set of rules describes how data is transmitted over a network.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 97 97

 OSI LAYER

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 98

 Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)
Model
Who made:
 International Standards Organization (ISO)
• A Model of How Protocols and Networking Components Could be
Made
• “Open” means the concepts are non- proprietary;
• can be used by anyone.
• OSI is not a protocol.
• It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible and robust.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 99
 Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)

• The OSI model describes how data flows from one computer, through a network to
another computer
• The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information between
networked computers into 7 smaller, more manageable sub-task .
• A task is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers.
• Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 10

0
The Layers of the OSI Model

Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 101

The Layers of the OSI Model Some Mnemonics

All People Application Please Do

Seem To Presentation Not Tell
Need Session Secret
Data Passwords
Transport
Processing Anytime
Network
Data Link
Physical

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 102

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 103
 Physical layer

• Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over physical

medium.
• It deals with a electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface
and transmission medium(type of medium).
• It responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop(node) to
the next.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 104

 Physical layer
• Specifications for the physical components of the
network.
• Functions of Physical Layer: Application
• Bit representation – encode bits(0’s and 1’s) into electrical
or optical signals Presentation
• Transmission rate – The number of bits sent each second
•
• Physical characteristics of transmission media
Session
• Synchronizing the • sender and receiver clocks(both are not
have same bit rate). Transport
• Line Configuration• The physical layer is concerned with
the connection of devices
•
to the media.(point-to-point (or) Network
multipoint)
• Transmission mode – simplex, half-duplex, full duplex Data Link
•
• Physical Topology – how devices are connected – ring,
star, mesh, bus topology
•
Physical

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 105

Physical Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 106

 Data Link Layer
Responsible for delivery of data between two systems on
the same network(hop to hop delivery)
Main functions of this layer are:
Application
• Framing – divides the stream of bits received from
•
network layer into manageable data units called frames. Presentation
• Physical Addressing – Add a header to the frame to
define the physical address of the source and the Session
•
destination machines(MAC). Transport
• Flow control – If the receiver is less than rate of at which
data are produced in the sender.[The flow control Network
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver]
Data Link
Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 107
MAC(Medium Access control)

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 108

 Data Link Layer
• Error Control – Adds relaibility mechanisms to detect and
Application
retransmit damaged or lost frames. This is achieved by
adding a trailer to the end of a frame Presentation
Also, recognize duplicate frames.
Session
Transport
• Access Control –When two (or) more devices connected
Network
to the same link, then this layer protocol determine which
Data Link
devices has control over the link at any given time.
Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 109
Data Link Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 110

 Network Layer
Main functions of this layer are: Application
• Responsible for delivery of packets across multiple(sou to
des delivery) networks[Note: if two systems are connected Presentation
to the same link there is no need for a n/w layer]
• Logical Addressing:The physical addressing implemented Session
by the data link layer handles the addressing problem
locally(MAC) Transport
• When it passes the boundary the n/w layer adds a header to Network
the packet(IP) coming from the upper layer(include logical
address of sender and receiver) Data Link

Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 34 111
 Network Layer
Application
Main functions of this layer are:
Presentation
• Routing – Independent networks (or) large n/w, the Session
connecting device(Router or switch) Transport
• Router the packets to the final destrination. Network
• Network layer is responsible only for delivery of Data Link
individual packets and it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets. Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 112
Network Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 113

 Transport Layer
• Responsible for source-to- destination delivery of Application
the entire message.
Main functions of this layer are: Presentation
• Segmentation and reassembly – divide message
into smaller segments, add sequence number them Session
and transmit. Reassemble these messages at the
receiving end. Transport
• Error control – make sure that the entire message Network
arrives without errors – else retransmit.
Data
Link
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU
Physical
114
 Transport Layer
Service point addressing:
Compuer often run several programs at a same time.
Sou-to-des not only from one computer to next. Application
The transport layer header must therefore include a address
called service point address[port address]
Connection control: Presentation
Connectionless- Each segment as a individual & delivery to the
destination. Session
Connection oriented- Fist establish a connection with the Transport
transport layer at the destination before the packets send.
After all data packets delivered, then the connection is Network
terminated.
Data
Link
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU
Physical
115
 Transport Layer
• A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number,
commonly known as the port number.
• A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 1 to 65535
(port number 0 is reserved and can't be used).

• Transport Layer protocols, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), specify a source and destination
port number in their packet headers.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 116

Transport Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 117

Transport Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 118

 Session Layer Application

• First three layers not sufficient for some Presentation

processes.session layer establishes, maintains and
synchronizes the interaction among Session
communicating systems. Transport
Main functions of this layer are: Network
Data Link
• Dialog control – allows two systems to enter into a
dialog, keep a track of whose turn it is to transmit Physical
• Synchronization – adds check points
(synchronization
• points) into stream of data.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 119

Session Layer
From Presentation Layer To Presentation Layer

Session Layer Session Layer

H5 H5
syn syn syn syn syn syn

To Transport Layer From Transport Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 120

 Presentation Layer
Responsibilities of this layer are:
• Translation Application
• Different computers use different encoding systems (bit order
Presentation
translation)
Session
• Convert data into a• common format before transmitting.
Transport
• Syntax represents info
• such as character codes - how many bits Network
to represent data – 8 or 7 bits Data Link
• Compression – reduce number of bits to be transmitted Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 121
 Presentation Layer
Application
• Encryption – transform data into an unintelligible format
Presentation
at the sending end for data security
Session
• Decryption – at the receiving end
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 122
 Application Layer
• Contains protocols that allow the users to access the Application
network (FTP, HTTP, SMTP, etc)
Presentation
• Does not include application programs such as email,
Session
browsers, word processing applications, etc.
Transport
• Protocols contain utilities and network-based services that
Network
support email via SMTP, Internet access via HTTP, file
Data Link
transfer via FTP, etc
Physical
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 123
Application Layer

To Presentation Layer From Presentation Layer

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 124
Summary of Functions of
Layers
To allow access to
Application network resources
To translate, encrypt
and compress data Presentation
Session To establish, manage
& terminate sessions
To provide reliable
end-to-end message Transport
delivery
To move packets from
Network source to destination
To organise bits into
frames Data Link
To transmit bits over
Physical a medium & provide
electrical specs.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 125

• Lyer 1-3-are the network support layer.
• (they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another)
• Layer4- links the two subgroups
• Layer 6-7-can be thought of as the user support layers(Allow
interoperability among unrelated software system)

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 126

Transmissio
n Media

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 127

 Transmission Media
 Guided Media:
 Twisted Pair
 UTP
 STP
 Co-Axial Cable
 Fibre Optic Cable
Unguided Media:
 Propagation Methods
 Radio Waves
 Antenna
 Microwaves
 Infrared

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 128

 What is Tranmission Media ?

In data communication,

• Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to

receiver.

• We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.

• Data is transmitted normally through electrical or

electromagnetic signals.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 129

 Description
• Transmission media are located below the physical layer

• Computers use signals to represent data.

• Signals are transmitted in form of electromagnetic energy.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 130

Classification of Transmission media

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 131

 Twisted-pair cable

 A twisted pair consists of two conductors

 Basically copper based

 With its own plastic insulation, twisted together.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 132

 Twisted Pair Description
• Provide protection against cross talk or interference(noise)
• One wire use to carry signals to the receiver
• Second wire used as a ground reference

• For twisting, after receiving the signal remains same.

• Therefore number of twists per unit length, determines the quality
of cable.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 133

 Twisted Pair
Advantages:

• Cheap

• Easy to work with

Disadvantages:

• Low data rate

• Short range

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 134

 Twisted Pair - Applications
• Very common medium

• Can be use in telephone network

• Connection Within the buildings

• For local area networks (LAN)

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU

135
Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted Pair cables

Unshielded Shielded
Twisted Pair Twisted pair
(UTP) (STP)

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 136

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
Description
• Pair of unshielded wires
wound around each
other

• Easiest to install

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 137

 Applications
UTP :

 Telephone subscribers connect to the central

telephone office

 DSL lines

 LAN – 10Mbps or 100Mbps

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 138

 UTP Cable Types
Cat 1
Cat 7 Cat 2

Cat 6 UTP Cat 3

Cat 5e Cat 4
Cat 5

Cat means category according to IEEE standards. IEEE is de jure

standard
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 139
Categories of UTP
cables

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 140

 UTP connector and Tools

RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack) is a keyed connector, it

means that it can be inserted in only one way

Crimper Tool

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 141

Advantages of UTP:

 Affordable
 Most compatible cabling
 Major networking system

Disadvantages of UTP:

• Suffers from external Electromagnetic interference

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 142

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Pair of wires wound around each other placed

inside a protective foil wrap
• Metal braid or sheath foil that reduces
interference
• Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 143

 STP Application

• STP is used in IBM token ring networks.

• Higher transmission rates over longer distances.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 144

Advantages of STP:

 Shielded
 Faster than UTP

Disadvantages of STP:

 More expensive than UTP

 High attenuation rate

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 145

 Co-axial Cable
Co-axial cable carries signal of higher frequency ranges than twisted
pair cable

• Inner conductor is a solid wire

• Outer conductor serves as a shield against noise and a

second conductor
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 146
 Categories of coaxial cables

Coaxial cables are categorized by Radio Government (RG) ratings,

RG is De Jure standards

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 147

 Coaxial Cable Connectors
BNC Connectors – Bayone Neil Concelman
To connect coaxial cable to devices we need coaxial connectors

 BNC Connector is used at the end of the cable to a device

Example: TV set conenction

 BNC T connector used to Ethernet networks to branch out connection to computer or

other devices

 BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 148

 Coaxial Cable Applications

• Most versatile medium

• Television distribution

• Long distance telephone transmission

• Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously

• Short distance computer systems links

• Local area networks

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 149

 COAXIAL CABLE
ADVANTAGES
 Easy to wire

 Easy to expand

 Moderate level of Electro Magnetic Interference

DISADVANTAGE
 Single cable failure can take down an entire network

 Cost of installation of a coaxial cable is high due to its

thickness and stiffness

 Cost of maintenance is also high

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 150

 Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmit signals in
the form of light.

Nature of light:

 Light travels in a straight line

 If light goes from one substance to another then the ray of light changes
direction

 Ray of light changes direction when goes from more dense to a less dence
substance
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 151
 Optical fiber
• Uses reflection to guide light through a
channel
Jacket

• Core is of glass or plastic surrounded by Cladding

• Cladding is of less dense glass or plastic

An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three

concentric sections: the core, the cladding, and the jacket(outer part
of the cable).

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 152

Fiber Construction

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 153

 Fiber – Optic cable Connectors

Subscriber Channel (SC) Connecter

Same szie as RJ45 connector

Straight-Tip (ST) Connecter

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 154

 Areas of Application

 Telecommunications

 Local Area Networks

 Cable TV

 CCTV

 Medical Education

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 155

 Optical Fiber Advantages

 Greater capacity
Example: Data rates at 100 Gbps

 Smaller size & light weight

 Lower attenuation
 Electromagnetic isolation
 More resistance to corrosive materials
 Greater repeater spacing facility
Example: After every 10s of km at least
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 156
 Optical Fiber Disadvantages

• Installation and maintenance need expertise

• Only Unidirectional light propagation
• Much more expensive

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 157

 Unguided Media

Wireless transmission waves

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 158

Unguided Media – Radio Waves
 Omnidirectional Antenna
 Frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz.
 Used for multicasts(multiple way) communications, such
as radio and television, and paging system.
 Radio waves can penetrate buildings easily, so that widely use
for indoors & outdoors communication.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 159

 Antennas
An Antenna is a structure that is generally a metallic object may be a wire or
group of wires, used to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic
waves.
Antenna are two types:
• Transmission antenna
 Transmit radio frequency from transmitter
 Radio frequency then
Convert to electromagnetic energy by antenna
 Then, radiate into surrounding environment
• Reception antenna
 Electromagnetic energy get in antenna
 Then Antenna convert radio frequency to electrical energy
 Then, Goes to receiver
same antenna can be used for both purposes

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 160

 Microwaves

Microwaves are ideal when large areas need to be covered and there are no obstacles
in the path

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 161

 Micro waves Transmission
• Microwaves are unidirectional
• Micro waves electromagnetic waves having frequency between 1 GHZ and 300
GHZ.
• There are two types of micro waves data communication system: terrestrial and
satellite
• Micro waves are widely used for on to one communication between sender
and receiver,
example: cellular phone, satellite networks and in wireless LANs(wifi),
WiMAX,GPS

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 162

 Infrared
 Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 Used for short-range communication
 Example: Night Vision Camera,Remote control, File sharing between two
phones, Communication between a PC and peripheral device,

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 163

 Wireless Networks
• Computer networks that are not connected by cables
are called wireless networks.
• They generally use radio waves for communication
between the network nodes.
• They allow devices to be connected to the network
while roaming around within the network coverage.
• A wireless network allows devices to stay connected to
the network but roam untethered to any wires. 
• Access points amplify Wi-Fi signals, so a device can be
far from a router but still be connected to the network.
• When you connect to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a cafe, a hotel,
an airport lounge, or another public place, you're
connecting to that business's wireless network.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 164
 What Is a Wireless Network or Wi-Fi?
• A wireless network refers to a computer network that makes use of Radio
Frequency (RF) connections between nodes in the network.
• Wireless networks are a popular solution for homes, businesses, and
telecommunications networks.
• It is common for people to wonder “what is a wireless network” because while
they exist nearly everywhere people live and work, how they work is often a
mystery.
• Similarly, people often assume that all wireless is Wi-Fi, and many would be
surprised to discover that the two are not synonymous.
• Both use RF, but there are many different types of wireless networks across a
range of technologies (Bluetooth, ZigBee, LTE, 5G), while Wi-Fi is specific to the
wireless protocol defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
(IEEE) in the 802.11 specification and it’s amendments.

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 Advantages of Wireless Networks
• It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and cables.
• Accessing network devices from any location within the network coverage or Wi-
Fi hotspot becomes convenient since laying out cables is not needed.
• Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
• New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since they needn’t be
wired to the present equipment.
• Also, the number of equipment that can be added or removed to the system can
vary considerably since they are not limited by the cable capacity.
• This makes wireless networks very scalable.
• Wireless networks require very limited or no wires.
• Thus, it reduces the equipment and setup costs.

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 What are the benefits of a Wi-Fi wireless network?
• Convenience: Access your network resources from any location within your wireless
network's coverage area or from any Wi-Fi hotspot.
• Mobility: You're not tied to your desk, as you are with a wired connection. You and your
employees can go online in conference room meetings.
• Productivity: Wireless access to the Internet and to your company's key applications
and resources helps your staff get the job done and encourages collaboration.
• Easy setup: You don't have to string cables, so installation can be quick and cost
effective.
• Expandability: You can easily expand wireless networks with existing equipment,
whereas a wired network might require additional wiring.
• Security: Advances in wireless networks provide robust security protections.
• Reduced cost: Because wireless networks eliminate or reduce wiring expenses, they can
cost less to operate than wired networks.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 167

 Examples of wireless networks

• Mobile phone networks

• Wireless sensor networks

• Satellite communication networks

• Terrestrial microwave networks

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 How to deploy a wireless network
• To create your wireless network, you can choose between three types of deployment:
1. Centralized Deployment
• The most common type of wireless network system, centralized deployments are traditionally
used in campuses where buildings and networks are in close proximity. This deployment
consolidates the wireless network, which makes upgrades easier and facilitates advanced
wireless functionality. Controllers are based on-premises and are installed in a centralized
location.
2. Converged Deployment
• For small campuses or branch offices, converged deployments offer consistency in wireless and
wired connections. This deployment converges wired and wireless on one network device—an
access switch—and performs the dual role of both switch and wireless controller.
3. Cloud-Based Deployment
• This system uses the cloud to manage network devices deployed on-premises at different
locations. The solution requires Cisco Meraki cloud-managed devices, which provide full
visibility of the network through their dashboards.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 169
 Types of Wireless Networks

• Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless distribution

techniques.

• Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a metropolitan

area.

• Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and personal

networks.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 170
 The Components of a Wireless Network
Clients:
• What we tend to think of as the end user devices are typically called ‘clients’. 
• As the reach of Wi-Fi has expanded, a variety of devices may be using Wi-Fi to connect the network,
including phones, tablets, laptops, desktops, and more.
• This gives users the ability to move about the area without sacrificing their bridge to the network.
• In some instances, mobility within an office, warehouse, or other work area is necessary.
• For example, if employees have to use scanners to register packages due to be shipped, a wireless
network provides the flexibility they need to freely move about the warehouse.
Access Point (AP):
• An access point (AP) consists of a Wi-Fi that is advertising a network name (known as a Service Set
Identifier, or SSID). 
• Users who connect to this network will typically find their traffic bridged to a local-area network (LAN)
wired network (like Ethernet) for communication to the larger network or even the internet. 
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 171
 How Does Wi-Fi Work?
• A Wi-Fi based wireless network sends signals using radio waves (cellular phones and radios also transmit over
radio waves, but at different frequencies and modulation).
• In a typical Wi-Fi network, the AP (Access Point) will advertise the specific network that it offers connectivity.
• This is called a Service Set Identifier (SSID) and it is what users see when they look at the list of available
networks on their phone or laptops. 
• The AP advertises this by way of transmissions called beacons. 
• The beacon can be thought of as an announcement saying “Hello, I have a network here, if it’s the network you’re
looking for, you can join”.
• A client device receives the beacon transmitted by the AP and converts the RF signal into digital data, then that
data is passed along to the device for interpretation. 
• If the user wants to connect to the network, it can send messages to the AP trying to join and (when security is
enabled) providing the proper credentials to prove they have the right to join. 
• These processes are known as Association & Authentication. 
• If either of these fail, the device will not successfully join the network and will be unable to further communicate
with the AP.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 172

 Wi-Fi Network Standards
• The networking standard used by wireless architecture is IEEE 802.11. However, this standard is in continual development and
new amendments come out regularly.  Amendments to the standard are assigned letters, and while many amendments have been
released, the most commonly known are:
802.11a
• This original amendment added support for the 5 GHz band, allowing transmission up to 54 megabits of data per second. The
802.11a standard makes use of orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). It splits the radio signal into sub-signals
before they get to a receiver.   802.11a is an older standard and has been largely replaced by newer technology.
802.11b
• 802.11b added faster rates in the 2.4GHz band to the original standard. It can pass up to 11 megabits of data in a second. It uses
complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to achieve better speeds.  802.11b is an older standard and has been largely
replaced by newer technology
802.11g
• 802.11g standardized the use of OFDM technology used in 802.11a in the 2.4GHz band.  It was backwards compatible with
both 802.11 and 802.11b.  802.11g is an older standard and has been largely replaced by newer technology.
802.11n
• Once the most popular standard 802.11n was the first time a unified specification covered both the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands.
This protocol offers better speed when compared to those that came before it by leveraging the idea of transmitting using
multiple antennas simultaneously (usually called Multiple In Multiple Out or MIMO technology). 802.11n is an older standard,
but some older devices may still be found in use.

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 Wi-Fi Network Standards
802.11ac
• 802.11ac was only specified for the 5GHz band.  It built upon the mechanisms introduced in 802.11n. 
• While not as revolutionary as 802.11n was, it still extended speeds and capabilities in the 5GHz band. 
• Most devices currently out in the wild are likely 802.11ac devices.
• 802.11ac technology was released in two main groups, usually called ‘waves’. 
802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)
• 802.11ax (much like 802.11n) unified the specification across all applicable frequency bands. 
• In the name of simplicity, the industry has started to refer to it as Wi-Fi 6. Wi-Fi 6 has expanded the technologies
used for modulation to include OFDMA, which allows a certain amount of parallelism to the transmission of
packets within the system, making more efficient use of the available spectrum and improving the overall network
throughput.  Wi-Fi 6 is the latest technology and is what most new devices are shipping with.
Other 802.11 Standards
• There are many more amendments that have been made to the standards over the years (most letters of the alphabet
have been used over time). 
• Additional 802.11 standards have focused on things like better security, increased Quality of Service, as well as
many other enhancements.

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 Wi-Fi Connection Modes
Infrastructure
• Infrastructure mode is the most common style of Wi-Fi, and it is the one people think of when they connect at
home or the office. With infrastructure mode, you need an access point that serves as the primary connection
device for clients. All other clients in the network (computer, printer, mobile phone, tablet, or other device) connect
to an access point to gain access to a wider network.
Ad Hoc
• Ad hoc mode is also referred to as peer-to-peer mode because it does not involve an access point, but is instead
made up of multiple client devices. The devices, acting as “peers” within the network, connect to each other
directly.
Wi-Fi Direct
• Wi-Fi Direct is a form of Ad Hoc, but with some additional features and capabilities. Wireless connectivity is
provided to compatible devices that need to connect without the use of an access point. Televisions are frequently
Wi-Fi Direct compatible, allowing users to send music or images straight from a mobile device to their TV.
Wi-Fi Hotspot
• The term “Wi-Fi hotspot” usually refers to wireless networks placed in public areas, like coffee shops, to allow
people to connect to the internet without having to have special credentials. While some are free, others require a
fee, particularly those administered by companies that specialize in the provision of hotspots in places like airports
or bus terminals.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 175
 Packet Radio Network
• The Packet Radio Network was a program set up by DARPA in 1973 to explore the possibility of an ad-hoc data
network using wireless links.
• It was perhaps most important as one of several physical network technologies being explored by DARPA, the
need to interconnect which caused DARPA to work on internetworking, which led to the development of
the TCP/IP protocol family, used in today's Internet.
• The network included 'Packet Radio Units' (PRUs), which included all the actual radio electronics, along with
a microprocessor to implement the protocol used for controlling the transmission of packets between PRUs.
• These are connected via radio in an ad-hoc network, structured as a tree (in connectivity terms, not geography)
based on a special node, the 'station' (in the prototype, a PDP-11/40 running ELF, connected to a PRU), which is
responsible for overall monitoring and control of the network (called PRNET).
• Hosts connected to PRUs by use of an 1822 interface, as used to connect to ARPANET IMPs. (HDLC was much
later substituted for 1822 as the physical channel for talking to the later version of the PRUs.)

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 Packet Radio Network
• However, rather than the Host-to-IMP Protocol used by the IMPs, PRUs used an alternative, the
'Channel Access Protocol' (CAP), which also includes some of the control mechanisms of the
PRNET.
• CAP packets held up to 116 16-bit words of user data, and an 11 word CAP header. CAP, at a
high level, operates between the overall source and destination of a given packet, built on top of
hop-by-hop operation.
• On top of CAP, there was another layer, the 'Station to PRU Protocol' (SPP), which operated
between PRUs and the station, for high-level overall network control functions.
• Major participants included BBN, which produced the station, and the gateways to connect the
PRNET to other networks; 
• SRI, which created the Terminal Interface Unit as a test user host for the PRNET; and Rockwell
International's Collins division, which was responsible for the Packet Radio Units.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 177

 Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11b,

• IEEE 802.11b is an amendment to the 802.11 standard for wireless LANs. It is of

of the specifications that is more commonly known as Wi-Fi.

• 802.11b uses the same unregulated radio frequency band of 2.4 GHz that was used
by the original 802.11 standard, but operates at theoretical data throughput of 11
Mbps. 801.11.b was rolled up into 802.11-2007 along with amendments a, b, d, e,
g, h, i, and j.

• This term is also known as IEEE 802.11b-1999

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 802.11b wireless LAN standard and Its Advantages and
Disadvantages
• The first wireless LAN (WLAN) standard was created by the IEEE committee in 1997, and was called 802.11.
However, 802.11 standard supported only up to 2 Mbps of bandwidth, and quickly became obsolete. Subsequently,
IEEE created the 802.11a, and 802.11b standards.
• The following are the advantages of the IEEE 802.11b standard compared to 802.11a and Bluetooth wireless LAN:
• The 802.11b WLAN standard is widely supported by manufacturers, and very cost effective.
• Easy to set-up and maintain.
• Suits well for home segment due to lower costs and simple set-up.
• The following are some of the disadvantages:
• Supports only up to 11Mbps bandwidth. Though the speed is sufficient for most applications, it limits the number
of simultaneous users to a far less number compared to 802.11a.
• It operates in 2.4GHz frequency band, which is normally used by many appliances. Hence, it is more interference
prone compared to 802.11a.
• Doesn't provide suitable scalability required in business environment.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 179

 What is IEEE 802.11b Wireless LAN(WLAN) technology?
• 802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) is an IEEE standard and an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless
LAN's and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1-Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b was
a  ratification to the original 802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to Ethernet.
• Using 802.11b Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technology will be most suitable in following conditions: 
• When range requirements are significant:
• For larger facilities, such as a warehouse or department store, 802.11b will provide the least costly solution because of fewer
access points.
• When you already have a large investment in 802.11b devices:
• The relatively high costs associated with migrating from a large-scale 802.11b system to 802.11a will be difficult to sell to the
company's financial decision makers.
• When End users are sparsely populated:
• If there are relatively few end users that need to roam throughout the entire facility, then 802.11b will likely meet performance
requirements because there are fewer end users competing for each access point's total throughput. Unless there are significant
needs for very high performance per end user, then 802.11a would probably be overkill in this situation.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 180

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 181
 Cont…
• The original IEEE 802.11 standard supported a maximum thoughput of 2 Mpbs, which was too slow for
many applications. 802.11b improved on this, but was under development at the same time as 802.11a.
Despite 802.11a having a higher throughput (because it operated at the 5Ghz band and used OFDM),
802.11b achieved huge commercial success, largely due to its affordability.
• The popularity of 802.11b was a big reason for the backwards compatability of 802.11g, and even
802.11n. Some critics of 802.11b suggest that we'd be better off if 802.11b didn't get so popular as it has
keept Wi-Fi using the 2.4 GHz range. (The 2.4 GHz range is unregulated, so you can get interference
from things like microwaves and cell phones).
• The current fastest amendment is the 802.11n, which uses double the radio spectrum compared to
802.11a. The 802.11n operates both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths and has multiple-input multiple-
output (MIMO) antennas. The result of all the amendments and forced backwards compatibility is device
makers producing see dual-mode, tri-band, routers. In other words, wireless routers that have radios for
802.11b/g as well as 802.11n.
• Coming down the line is 802.11ac, which is expected to be used by manufacturers as early as 2012,
despite the fact that the amendment has not been released by the IEEE.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 182

 Wireless Application Protocol
• WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for
micro-browsers and it enables the access of internet in the mobile devices.
• It uses the mark-up language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML),
WML is defined as XML 1.0 application.
• It enables creating web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was
founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to
standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols.
• WAP protocol was resulted by the joint efforts of the various members of WAP
Forum.
• In 2002, WAP forum was merged with various other forums of the industry
resulting in the formation of Open Mobile Alliance (OMA).

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Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 184
 WAP Model:
• The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that he wants to view.
• The mobile device sends the URL encoded request via network to a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.

• The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL request and sends it over the internet.
• The request reaches to a specified Web server and it processes the request just as it would have processed any other request and
sends the response back to the mobile device through WAP gateway in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 185

WAP Protocol stack:

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 186

 WAP Protocol stack
• Application Layer:
This layer contains the Wireless Application Environment (WAE). It contains mobile device specifications and
content development programming languages like WML.
• Session Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It provides fast connection suspension and
reconnection.
• Transaction Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). It runs on top of UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
and is a part of TCP/IP and offers transaction support.
• Security Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Layer Security (WTLS). It offers data integrity, privacy and
authentication.
• Transport Layer
This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It presents consistent data format to higher layers of WAP
protocol stack.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 187
 WML - Introduction
• WML stands for Wireless Markup Language (WML) which is based on HTML and HDML.
• It is specified as an XML document type.
• It is a markup language used to develop websites for mobile phones. While designing with WML, constraints of
wireless devices such as small display screens, limited memory, low bandwidth of transmission and small
resources have to be considered.
• WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) sites are different from normal HTML sites in the fact that they are
monochromatic (only black and white), concise and has very small screen space, due to which content in the WAP
sites will be only the significant matter, much like how telegraph used to work in the olden days.
• The concept WML follows is that of a deck and card metaphor.
• A WML document is thought of as made up of many cards. Just like how cards can be grouped to form a deck, a
WAP site has many cards. One card will be displayed at a time on the screen, just like how one page is displayed at
a time in an HTML website.
• Many cards can be inserted into a WML document, and the WML deck is identified by a URL. To access the deck,
the user can navigate using the WML browser, which fetches the deck as required.

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 Features of WML
• Text and Images: WML gives a clue about how the text and images can be
presented to the user. The final presentation depends upon the user. Pictures need
to be in WBMP format and will be monochrome.
• User Interaction: WML supports different elements for input like password entry,
option selector and text entry control. The user is free to choose inputs such as
keys or voice.
• Navigation: WML offers hyperlink navigation and browsing history.
• Context Management: The state can be shared across different decks and can
also be saved between different decks.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 189

 What Is a VPN? (Virtual Private Network)

• A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a

device to a network.

• The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted.

• It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to

conduct work remotely.  

• VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 190

 VPN
• VPN stands for Virtual Private Network.
• It allows you to connect your computer to a private network, creating an encrypted connection that masks your IP
address to securely share data and surf the web, protecting your identity online.
• A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a network.
• The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted.
• It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely.
• VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments.
VPN connections are used in two important ways −
• To establish WAN connections using VPN technology between two distant networks that
• may be thousands of miles apart, but where each has some way of accessing the internet.
• To establish remote access connections that enable remote users to access a private network through a public
network like the internet.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 191
 How does a virtual private network (VPN) work?

• A VPN extends a corporate network through encrypted connections made over the
Internet.

• Because the traffic is encrypted between the device and the network, traffic
remains private as it travels.

• An employee can work outside the office and still securely connect to the
corporate network.

• Even smartphones and tablets can connect through a VPN.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 192

 Cont…
What is secure remote access?
• Secure remote access provides a safe, secure way to connect users and devices remotely
to a corporate network.
• It includes VPN technology that uses strong ways to authenticate the user or device.
VPN technology is available to check whether a device meets certain requirements, also
called a device’s posture, before it is allowed to connect remotely.
Is VPN traffic encrypted?
• Yes, traffic on the virtual network is sent securely by establishing an encrypted
connection across the Internet known as a tunnel.
• VPN traffic from a device such as a computer, tablet, or smartphone is encrypted as it
travels through this tunnel.
• Offsite employees can then use the virtual network to access the corporate network.
Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 193
 Types of VPNs
Remote access 
• A remote access VPN securely connects a device outside the corporate office. These devices are known as endpoints and may
be laptops, tablets, or smartphones. Advances in VPN technology have allowed security checks to be conducted on endpoints to
make sure they meet a certain posture before connecting. Think of remote access as computer to network.
Site-to-site
• A site-to-site VPN connects the corporate office to branch offices over the Internet. Site-to-site VPNs are used when distance
makes it impractical to have direct network connections between these offices. Dedicated equipment is used to establish and
maintain a connection. Think of site-to-site access as network to network.
Router VPN
• The first type uses a router with added VPN capabilities. A VPN router cannot only handle normal routine duties, but it can also
be configured to form VPNs over the internet to other similar routers located in remote networks.
Firewall VPN
• The second type of VPN is one built into a firewall device. Firewall VPN can be used both to support remote users and also to
provide VPN links.
• Network Operating System
• The third type of VPNs include those offered as part of a network operating system like Windows NT, Windows 2000, and
Netware 5. These VPNs are commonly used to support remote access, and they are generally the least expensive to purchase
and install.

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 194

 VPN

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 195

 Thank You

Computer Networks:- Dr. G. JAWAHERLALNEHRU 196