STEM MORPHOLOGY

• Stem is an ascending organ usually developed from the plumule

and grows vertically up; sometimes it is sub-aerial or underground.
• The plumule, developed after the germination of the seed,
elongates upward forming the shoot i.e. leaf bearing axis or stem.
The stem bears branches (exceptions: Palms, Cycas, etc.) and
leaves which are together called shoot.
• Modified reproductive shoots are found on the stem, known as
flowers. A stem growing above the ground is generally green in
young condition but due to the occurrence of secondary growth
and formation of bark, the green colour of the stem changes at the
adult stage.
• Stems growing under the soil are always non-green in colour.
Forms of Stems
The form of the stem varies in different plants though generally it is cylindrical in
appearance. Following are the different forms of stem:
(i)Square i.e. stem is four-angled forming a square structure, e.g. Cissus quadrangularis
(Vitaceae), Leonurus sibiricus (Labiatae), Peristrophe bicalyculata (Acanthaceae), etc.
(ii)Triangular: Stem is three-angled, e.g. Cyperus rotundus (Cyperaceae).
(iii)Flat: In this type the stem is flat and leaf-like, e.g., Opuntia dillenii (Cactaceae).
(iv)Jointed or Articulated: In this type, joint or articulation appears in the node which
bulges externally forming a hardened ring. Example: Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
and other grasses.
(v)Ribbed: Stems with ridges and furrows, found in species of Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae)
and Casuarina (Casuarinaceae).
(vi)Ribbon-shaped: Stem is flat, filamentous or ribbon-shaped as in Podostemon sp.
(Podostemaceae)
Usually a stem is solid but due to the disorganisation of the pith i.e. central region it may
be hollow or fistular as seen in many grasses, Cucurbita spp., etc
Surface of Stems
(a) Glabrous: In this type, the surface of the stem is smooth i.e. without
any emergences e.g. Boerhaavia repens (Nyctaginaceae), Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis (Malvaceae), etc.
(b) Glaucous: In this type, the stem is smooth and more or less shining,
e.g., Solanum glaucum (Solanaceae), Zea mays (Poaceae), etc.
(c) Pubescent or Tomentose: Here the stem is provided with various types
of hairs e.g. woolly, rough, etc. Examples: Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae),
Clerodendron infortunatum (Verbenaceae), Nerium odorum
(Apocynaceae).
(d) Prickly or spiny stem: Here the stem is provided with spines and
prickles, e.g., Opuntia dillenii (Cactaceae), Rosa centifolia (Rosaceae),
Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae), Solanum ferox (Solanaceae), etc.
According to the nature, duration and mode of branching of stems, plants
are divided into herbs, shrubs, undershrubs and trees:
A. HERBS OR HERBACEOUS PLANTS:
Plants which are erect, smaller in size and have soft stems are called herbs.
Generally they are unbranched, branching if present are few in number.
According to the duration of life, herbs are further classified into ephemerals,
annuals, biennials and perennials.
(i) Ephemerals: These plants live only for a few days; within these few days they
have to complete their life cycle, e.g. Balanites aegyptica (Zygophyllaceae).
(ii) Annuals: They live only through one season and complete their life cycle
within that period, e.g. Oryza sativa (Poaceae), Brassica nigra (Brassicaceae),
Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), etc.
(iii) Biennials: They live through two successive seasons. During the first season
they germinate from the seeds and produce vegetative parts and in the second
season they die after producing flower, fruit and seed, e.g. Daucus carota var.
sativa (Apiaceae), Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae), etc.
(iv) Perennials: They live and complete their life cycle in more than two seasons,
e.g. Borreria hispida (Rubiaceae), Scoparia dulcis (Scrophulariaceae), Zingiber
officinale (Zingeberaceae), etc
• B. SHRUBS: These are medium-sized erect small plants with woody stem. The
hard stem is profusely branched and branching is so profuse that it is very
difficult to distinguish the main stem. Common examples are: Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis (Malvaceae), Duranta repens (Verbenaceae), Jasminum sambac
(Oleaceae), etc. In shrubs trunk is absent.
• C. UNDERSHRUBS: Plants whose characters are found in between shrubs and
herbs called under-shrubs, e.g. Solanum melongena, Capsicum frutescens, etc.
of the family Solanaceae.
• D. TREES: These are tall plants with a very hard and woody stem. Up to a
certain height a tree remains unbranched, that portion of the plant is called
trunk. The trees are usually perennial, e.g. Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae),
Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae), Euphorbia pulcherrima (Euphorbiaceae),
etc.
Types of tree forms. A. Caudex of Cocos nucifera. B. Excurrent of Polyalthia
longifolia, C. Deliquescent of Mangifera indica (defoliated)
Kinds of Stems: Stems are generally rigid, firm and strong which enable plants to
remain in an upright position, but there are plants having weak stems and which are not
able to grow in an upright position. Aerial stems may be (a) strong (erect) or (b) weak.
• A. STRONG STEM: Plants become erect and remain in an upright position due to the rigidity
of the stem, as seen in herbs, shrubs and trees.
(a) Excurrent: When the tree takes a pyramidal form due to the development of racemose
branching it is known as excurrent, e.g. species of Abies, Picea, Pinus (Gymnosperms),
Polyalthia longifolia (Anonaceae), etc.
(b) Deliquescent: When the tree takes a dome-shaped (more or less rounded) appearance due
to cymose branching then it is known as deliquescent, e.g. Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae).
(c) Caudex: Tall erect unbranched stem is known as caudex. The stem bears leaves at its apex
and annular scars of fallen leaf bases, e.g. Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae), Borassus flabellifer
(Arecaceae), etc.
(d) Culm: Jointed stems are known as culm. In this case the nodes are solid and the internodes
are hollow, e.g. grasses such as Bambusa arundinacea (Poaceae). Scape: In some
monocotyledonous plants, the suppressed underground stem produces an erect unbranched
aerial shoot which is known as scape. It comes out through the cluster of leaves and bears at
its apex either a solitary flower or a cluster of flowers. The plant is defined as acaulescent,
e.g. Polyanthes tuberosa (Amaryllidaceae), Allium cepa (Liliaceae), aroids, etc.
B. WEAK STEMS: Many stems are weak; they cannot maintain an upright position.
Types of weak stem: Weak stems are either (a) Trailer: Trails over the surface of
the ground without rooting at the nodes, or (b) Creeper: Grows horizontally over
the surface of the soil striking roots (arising from the nodes) at short distance or
(c) Climber: Climbs up by supporting any other plant or object.
(a)Trailer or Trailing plants
(i) Procumbent or Prostrate: When the stem lies prostrate over the ground, its
apex also lies flat over the surface, e.g. Basella rubra (Chenopodiaceae), Evolvulus
nummularius, Ipomoea repans (Convolvulaceae), etc.
(ii) Decumbent: When the stem lies over the ground with the apex turned
upwards, e.g. Tridax procumbens (Asteraceae), Lindenbergia indica
(Scrophulariaceae), etc.
(b) Creepers: When the plant grows horizontally over the surface of the soil and
produces branches profusely and spreads out in all directions and gets rooted at
each node, it is known as a creeper, e.g. Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae),
Cynodon dactylon (Poaceae), Phyla nodiflora (Verbenaceae), etc.
(c) Climbers or Climbing Plants
1. Twiners or Stem climbers: Weak, long and slender stems of some plants
such as Clitorea ternatea (Fabaceae), Dioscorea alata (Dioscoreaceae),
Quisqualis sp. (Combretaceae), Ipomoea quamoclit (Convolvulaceae), etc.,
climb up other plants or objects by twining round their own stem. Twiners are
classified into two groups according to the direction of twining:
(i) Dextrorse: When the climbers twine clockwise or to the right then it is
called dextrorse, e.g. Dioscorea alata (Dioscoreaceae), Mikania scandens
(Asteraceae), Phaseolus sp. (Fabaceae), Dolichos lablab (Fabaceae), etc.
(ii) Sinistrorse: When the quamoclit climbers twine in anticlockwise or to the
left then it is called sinistrorse, e.g. Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae),
Clitorea ternatea (Fabaceae), Ipomoea quamoclit (Convolvulaceae),
Convolvulus sp. (Convolvulaceae), etc.
2. Lianas: Long and woody perennial stem climbers, which
climb-up tall forest trees are called lianas. They climb-up
owing to the different growth and curvature of the stem, e.g.
Hiptage benghalensis (Malpighiaceae), Beaumontia
grandiflora (Apocynaceae), Marsdenia volubilis
(Asclepiadaceae), Bauhinia vahlii (Fabaceae), etc.
3. Tendril Climbers: There are some plants which develop
special type of climbing organs called tendrils. These are
slender, spirally coiled, thread-like structures which may be
modifications of either branches or leaves or inflorescence
stalk and are very sensitive to contact. They help the plant to
climbup any other plant or object. Different plant organs are
modified to form tendrils.
i. Tendrils may develop from the axil of leaf and are called stem
tendrils; either the axillary bud is modified into slender coily structure,
e.g. Passiflora sp. (Passifloraceae), or as in Vitis sp. (Vitaceae) the
apical bud is modified into tendril.
ii. Entire leaf is modified into tendril, e.g. Lathyrus aphaca (Fabaceae)
iii. Terminal leaflets are modified into tendrils, e.g. Pisum sativum
(Fabaceae)
iv. Apex of the leaf is modified into tendril, e.g. Gloriosa superba
(Liliaceae)
v. Stipules are modified into tendrils, e.g. Smilax sp. (Liliaceae)
vi. Inflorescence axis is modified into tendrils, e.g. Antigonon leptopus
(Polygonaceae), Cardiospermum helicacabum (Sapindaceae), etc.
4. Root climbers: Several weak plants such as Pothos scandens (Araceae), Piper
betle (Piperaceae), Scindapsus officinalis (Araceae), Ficus pumila (Moraceae), etc.
climb-up suitable objects with the help of adventitious roots which develop from
the nodes of the stem.
5. Hook climbers: In Artabotrys uncinatus (Annonaceae) curved hooks are
developed from the flower stalks (pedicels) which help the plant to climb-up any
other plant or support. Hook-like structures are also formed due to the modification
of terminal leaflets which also serve the climbing purpose, e.g. Bignonia unguis-cati
(Bignoniaceae); sometimes hooks are modified inflorescence axes, e.g. Artabotrys
sp. (Annonaceae).
6. Leaf Climbers: Leaf climbers are the climbing plants in which the leaf or part of
the leaf is modified into tendril and which act as climbing organ (see iv and v under
tendril climbers). The leaf-stalk, i.e., petiole of Clematis sp. (Ranunculaceae) is
sensitive to contact and coil round any neighbouring object helping the plant to
climb. In Nepenthes spp. (Nepenthaceae), the modified petiole often twists round
the support like tendril holding the pitcher in vertical position.
7. Rambler or Scramblers: Several plants have been found to climb
neighbouring plants in forests with the help of prickles and thorns,
e.g. Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae), climbing rose,
Calamus rotang (Arecaceae), etc. In Calamus rotang, long slender
whip-like stalk covered by prickles (hook-like) is produced from the
leaf sheath, this helps the plant to climb neighbouring plants or
objects.
8. There is another type of climber called adhesive climber. These
climbers are provided with adhesive discs to some of their organs,
by means of such adhesive discs they may adhere to flat surfaces,
e.g. Ampelopsis veitchii (Vitaceae). In this plant the adhesive discs
are developed from the tendrils.
The Bud A bud is a condensed young shoot, in which internodes and
leaves remain in a rudimentary undeveloped condition.
So a bud has nodes and very short internodes and has a growing
point; young leaves are crowded together over a conical mass of
meristem forming a bud. Brassica oleracea var. capitata
(Brassicaceae) is the best example of a bud.
Kinds of Buds
i. Leaf bud develops into a leaf, e.g. Ficus sp. (Moraceae)
ii. Stem bud develops into leafy branch
iii. Flower bud develops into flower
iv. Mixed bud develops into vegetative shoot and reproductive
structure, i.e., flower, e.g. Malus sylvestris (Rosaceae)
Modification of Stems In some cases instead of growing upwards, the stem may grow underground. The stem undergoes
modifications or metamorphosis and assumes different shapes to perform various functions other than the normal ones.
TYPES OF MODIFIED UNDERGROUND STEMS
1. Rhizome: It is a thick, fleshy underground stem with distinct nodes and internodes, growing horizontally, sometimes
more or less vertically beneath the surface of the soil. The presence of distinct brown scale leaves at the nodes with the
axillary buds in most cases indicates the nature of the stem. From the lower surface of the nodes, a large number of
adventitious roots are developed. Under favourable condition the terminal bud develops into aerial shoot. At the close of
the vegetative season the annual parts die, leaving a scar on the upper surface of the rhizomes. The rhizome continues its
growth by one or more lateral buds, thereby, it grows year after year. It is found in herbaceous perennial
monocotyledons, e.g., Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae), Musa paradisiaca (Musaceae), Curcuma domestica
(Zingiberaceae), etc.
In some plants such as Alocasia indica (Araceae), Nymphaea esculenta (Water-lily) of Nymphaeaceae, the rhizome grows in vertical
direction instead of being horizontal. Those stout vertical rhizomes are called root-stock;
B). When the rhizome is wiry, horizontal and has long internodes, it is called a sobole. Common examples are some members of
the family Poaceae, viz., species of Agropyron, Spinifex littoreus, Cynodon dactylon, etc. Some botanists consider sobole as
underground runner or creeping stem due to thin and wiry nature of the stem devoid of accumulated food matter.

2. Stem Tuber: It is the swollen tip of an underground creeping branch which arises from the axil of a leaf on the main stem. Its
further growth in length is retarded; the tip becomes swollen and enlarged owing to the deposit of food matters. The shape of the
tuber is round or oval and it possess several irregular internodes. On the surface of the tuber eyes are present. Scars of minute
scale leaves which fall off very early are present-these bear normal buds in their axils. Adventitious buds are absent in the tuber.
Examples of tuber are Solanum tuberosum (Potato, Solanaceae), Cyperus rotundus (Cyperaceae), etc
3. Corm: It is an enlarged, more or less round, solid, vertical fleshy underground stem with a single internode with
many adventitious buds and roots on the surface of its body. The scale (thin and membranous) leaves are few and
often situated at the apex encircling the petiole of the foliage leaf. Buds are present; some of them develop into
new young corms and the old corm ultimately dies. Adventitious roots grow either from all over the body or from
the base of the corm, e.g. Amorphophallus campanulatus (Araceae), Crocus sativus (Liliaceae), etc.
4. Bulb: The bulb is a small, modified disc-like underground stem. The stem is extremely reduced and takes the
shape of a disc. Thick and fleshy leaf bases are crowded in concentric manner one above the other over the discoid
stem which bears numerous fibrous adventitious roots at its base. Food materials are stored within the fleshy
underground scale leaves. Axillary buds are present in the axil of leaf bases and also a terminal bud in the centre of
the disc.
Sub-aerial Modified Stems There are four types of sub-aerial modified stems for vegetative propagation, such as:
(1) Runner: It is a slender, prostrate, creeping aerial stem or branch. After running a short distance over the earth in a creeping manner
it sends off roots at its end and leaves develop, thus producing a new plant which produces another runner from its leaf-axil which
behaves similarly thus a series of independent plants are linked together by several runners. Sometimes runner bears scale leaves, e.g.
Centella asiatica (Apiaceae), Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), Marsilea sp. (Pteridophyte), etc.
(2) Offset: It is just like runner, but the stem is shorter and thicker. The branch produces at the ends cluster of roots and tuft of leaves,
e.g., Pistia stratiotes (Araceae), Eichhomia crassipes (Pontederiaceae), etc.
(3) Sucker: This is a sub-aerial branch arising from the stem below the surface of the earth and which after growing in a horizontal
direction for certain distance produces roots and turns upwards above the ground ; ultimately it develops into a new plant, e.g., Mentha
spicata (Labiatae), Chrysanthemum coronarium (Compositae), etc.
(4) Stolon: It is almost like a runner but the branch is more slender and longer, and arches due to its great length. On touching the soil
the tip produces cluster of roots and leaves, e.g., Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae).
Branching Definition: A branch is a similar appendage of the axis having nodes and internodes. It
develops at the axil of a leaf and bears leaves like its mother axis. All branches or stems have
endogenous origin. In angiosperm stems, branches arise from buds developing in the axil of leaves and
have the vascular supply from the stele of the main stem. The manner in which the branches are
arranged on the stem is known as branching.
Types of branching: There are two principal types of branching, viz.,
I.Lateral and II. Dichotomous.
I. LATERAL BRANCHING: Here the branches are given off laterally from the lateral buds of the main
axis. The branches are produced from the sides of the main stem. Lateral branching is of two types,
viz.: (a) cymose and (b) racemose.
A. Cymose or Definite Branching: In this type of branching the main axis gives off one or more branches slightly below its base from the
axillary buds, the main axis does not grow further in length. The growth of the apex is stopped due to its termination in a tendril or
flower bud. Hence the growth of the main axis is definite. This type of branching is known as cymose.
Cymose branching is of three kinds: Uniparous, Biparous and Multiparous.
(a) Uniparous: When only one branch is produced from the main axis at each branching, then it is called uniparous cyme. It may be
scorpioid or helicoid.
(i) Scorpioid: When lateral branches are produced on alternate sides in a zig zag manner, e.g., Cissus quadrangularis, Vitis vinifera (Vine)
etc. of the family Vitaceae.
(ii) Helicoid: When lateral branches are produced on one side only, e.g. Saraca indica (Fabaceae).
(b) Biparous: When two branches arise just below the main axis, it is known as biparous cyme, e.g., Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae) and
Carissa carandas (Apocynaceae). In case of the Plumeria acutifolia (Apocynaceae) the terminal bud remains undeveloped or soon dies
off; it looks like a false dichotomy.
(c) Multiparous: When more than two branches are produced, it is called multiparous cyme, e.g., Croton bonplandianum
(Euphorbiaceae).
B. Racemose or Indefinite Branching: In most angiosperms the main axis grows indefinitely giving off axillary
branches in acropetal order, the terminal bud grows for an indefinite period and persists throughout the whole life
of the plant. In this type of branching the primary axis or stem supports the lateral branches; therefore it is also
known as monopodial branching, e.g., Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae), Lawsonia inermis (Lythraceae), Hibiscus sp.
(Malvaceae), etc.
II. DICHOTOMOUS BRANCHING In this type the apical mass of tissue bifurcates due to the division of a single or a
group of pyramidal cells at the apex, which by further divisions produces two branches of equal dimension in a
forked manner. The tips of daughter branches may again fork in the same manner, e.g. found chiefly in Dictyota
dichotoma (Alga), Lycopodium (Pteridophyte) and Clinogyne dichotoma (Angiosperm). It may be of two kinds, e.g.: (i)
normal and (ii) sympodial.
(i) Normal Dichotomy: Here the tip of the main axis bifurcates forming branches of equal dimensions. The daughter
axis branches in the same manner as the main axis, e.g., Lycopodium clavatum, Psilotum tripuctrum – pteridophytes.
(ii) Sympodial Dichotomy: Here the tip of the main axis bifurcates forming two branches of unequal dimensions.
One of the daughter axes grows more vigorously than the other. It may be either, (a) Helicoid, i.e. one-sided
branching or (b) Scorpioid, branching on alternate sides.
LEAF MORPHOLOGY
Leaves are green photosynthetic organs of a plants arising from the nodes. They are usually flattened, either bifacial
(dorsiventral) with adaxial side (upper surface facing stem axis) different from abaxial side (lower surface facing
away from stem axis) or may be unifacial (isobilateral) with similar adaxial and abaxial surfaces. Leaf duration Leaves
may stay and function for a few days to many years, largely determined by the adaptation to climatic conditions:
a) Caducuous (Fugacious): Falling off soon after formation. Example Opuntia sp. b) Deciduous: Falling at the end of
growing season so that the plant (tree or shrub) is leafless in winter/dormant season. In tropical climate, the tree
may be leafless for only a few days. Salix sp. and Populus sp. are common examples.
c) Evergreen (Persistent): Leaves persisting throughout the year, falling regularly so that tree is never leafless. It
must be noted that whereas the term persistent is used for the leaves, the term evergreen is commonly associated
with trees with such leaves. Mango, pines and palms is common examples
Parts of Leaves:
A leaf is generally differentiated into a leaf blade (lamina) and a petiole.
A leaf with a distinct petiole is termed petiolate, whereas one lacking a petiole is sessile.
A petiole may be winged (Citrus), swollen (Eichhornia), modified into tendril (Clematis),
spine (Quisqualis) or become modified into a flattened photosynthetic phyllode (Acacia).
Two small stipules may be borne at the base of the petiole. The leaf terminology affords a
wide diversity. The leaf base may sometimes be sheathing or pulvinate (swollen)
Types of Stipules: The leaves of several species bear two small stipules as outgrowths from the leaf base. Leaves with stipules
are termed stipulate and those without stipules as exstipulate.
a)Free-lateral: Free and lying on either side of the petiole base, as in china-rose (Hibiscus rosasinensis).
b) Adnate: Attached to the base of petiole for some distant, as in Rose.
c) Intrapetiolar: The two stipules are coherent to form one, which lies in the axil of a leaf as in Gardenia.
d) Interpetiolar: A stipule lying between the petioles of two adjacent leaves, commonly due to fusion and enlargement of
two adjacent stipules of different leaves as found in several members of Rubiaceae like Ixora.
e) Ochreate: The two stipules united and forming a tubular structure ochrea, found in family Polygonaceae.
f) Foliaceous: Modified and enlarged to function like leaves as in Lathyrus aphaca, where the whole leaf blade is modified
into tendril and stipules are foliaceous.
g) Tendrillar: Stipules modified into tendrils as in Smilax.
h) Spiny: Stipules modified into spines as in Acacia
Leaf shape (outline of lamina) The shape of leaf/leaflet blade shows considerable variability and is of major taxonomic value.
Acicular: Needle-shaped, as in pine.
Cordate: Heart-shaped, with a deep notch at base, as in Piper betle.
Cuneate: Wedge-shaped, tapering towards the base, as in Pistia sp.
Deltoid: Triangular in shape.
Elliptical: Shaped like an ellipse, a flattened circle usually more than twice as long as broad, as in Catharanthus roseus.
Hastate: Shaped like an arrow head with two basal lobes directed outwards, as in Typhonium spp.; also referring to hastate leaf base.
Lanceolate: Shaped like a lance, much longer than broad and tapering from a broad base towards the apex, as in bottle-brush plant
(Callistemon lanceolatus).
Linear: Long and narrow with nearly parallel sides as in grasses and onion.
Lunate: Shaped like half-moon, as in Passiflora lunata.
Lyrate: Lyre-shaped; pinnatifid with large terminal lobe and smaller lower lobes, as in Brassica campestris.
Oblanceolate: Like lanceolate but with broadest part near apex.
Obcordate: Like cordate but with broadest part and notch at apex, as in Bauhinia spp.
Oblong: Uniformly broad along the whole length as in banana.
Obovate: Ovate, but with broadest part near the apex, as in Terminalia catappa.
Ovate: Egg-shaped, with broadest part near the base, as in Sida ovata.
Orbicular (rotund): Circular in outline. The peltate leaf of Nelumbo sp. is orbicular in outline.
Pandurate: Fiddle shaped; obovate with sinus or indentation on each side near the base and with
two small basal lobes, as in Jatropha panduraefolia.
Peltate: Shield-shaped with petiole attached to the lower surface of leaf (usually at the middle of
lamina), as in Nelumbo sp. Reniform: Kidney-shaped, as Centella asiatica. Runcinate: Oblanceolate
with lacerate or parted margin, as in Taraxacum sp.
Sagittate: Shaped like an arrowhead with two basal lobes pointed downwards, as in Sagittaria sp.
and Arum; also referring to sagittate leaf base.
Spathulate (spatulate): Shaped like a spatula, broadest and rounded near the apex, gradually
narrowed towards the base, as in Euphorbia sp
Types of Leaf margins The edge of a leaf blade is known as margin and may show any of the
following conditions: Crenate: With low rounded or blunt teeth, as in Kalanchoe.
Crisped: Margin strongly winding in vertical plane giving ruffled appearance to leaf.
Dentate: With sharp teeth pointing outwards
Denticulate: Minutely or finely dentate.
Double crenate (bi-crenate): Rounded or blunt teeth are again crenate
Double dentate: Sharp outward teeth are again dentate. The term bi-dentate, though
sometimes used here, is inappropriate, as it more correctly refers to a structure bearing two
teeth.
Double serrate (bi-serrate): The serrations are again serrate similarly as in Ulmus sp.
Entire: Smooth, without any indentation, as in Mango.
Retro-serrate: Teeth-pointed downwards.
Revolute: Margin rolled down.
Serrate: With sharp teeth pointing upward like saw, as seen in rose.
Serrulate: Minutely or finely serrate.
Undulate (repand, wavy): Margins winding gradually up and down and wavy, as in Polyalthia
longifolia.
Leaf Base Amplexicaul: The auriculate leaf base completely clasps the stem. Attenuate: Showing a long
gradual taper towards the base. Auriculate: With ear-like appendages at the base, as in Calotropis sp.
Cuneate: Wedge-shaped, with narrow end at the point of attachment. Decurrent: Extending down the stem
and adnate to the petiole. Oblique: Asymmetrical with one side of the blade lower on petiole than other.
Perfoliate: The basal lobes of leaf fusing so that the stem appears to pass through the leaf, as in Swertia.
When the bases of two opposite leaves fuse and the stem passes through them, it is termed connate
perfoliate as seen in Canscora sp. Rounded: With a broad arch at the base. Truncate: Appearing as if cut
straight
Leaf Surface The surface of leaves, stems and other organs may present a variety of surface indumentation, whose
characteristics are highly diagnostic in several taxa. The surface may be covered by trichomes (hairs, glands, scales, etc.)
arranged variously. Glabrous: Not covered with any hairs. Sometimes but not always synonymous with smooth surface.
Glaucous: Surface covered with a waxy coating, which easily rubs off. Glandular: Covered with glands or small secretory
structures. Glandular-punctate (gland-dotted): Surface dotted with immersed glands, as in Citrus. Hirsute: Covered with long
stiff hairs. Hispid: Covered with stiff and rough hairs. Lanate: Wooly with long intertwined hairs. Pilose: Covered with long
distinct and scattered hairs. Pubescent: Covered with soft short hairs. Rugose: With wrinkled surface. Scabrous: Surface
rough due to short rough points. Scurfy: Covered with scales. Sericeous: Covered with soft silky hairs, all directed towards
one side. Stellate: Covered with branched star-shaped hairs. Strigose: Covered with stiff appressed hairs pointing in one
direction. Tomentose: Covered with densely matted soft hairs, woolly in appearance.
VENATION The distribution of vascular bundles that are visible on the leaf surface as veins constitutes venation. Dicots exhibit a network of veins (reticulate venation); whereas
monocots usually have nonintersecting parallel veins (parallel venation). Each type of venation may encounter a single midrib from which the secondary veins arise (Unicostate or
pinnate), or more than one equally strong veins entering the leaf blade (multicostate or palmate). In ferns and Ginkgo, the venation is dichotomous with forked veins.
TYPE OF LEAVES Simple Leaf A leaf with a single blade (divided or not) is termed simple, whereas one with two or more distinct blades (leaflets) is said to be compound. A Simple
leaf may be undivided or incised variously depending upon whether the incision progresses down to the midrib (pinnate) or towards the base (palmate): (i) Pinnatifid: The incision is
less than halfway towards the midrib. (ii) Pinnatipartite: The incision is more than halfway towards the midrib. (iii) Pinnatisect: The incision reaches almost the midrib. (iv)
Palmatifid: The incision is less than halfway towards the base. (v) Palmatipartite: The incision is more than halfway towards the base of leaf blade. (vi) Palmatisect: The incision
reaches almost the base of leaf blade. (vii) Pedate: Deeply palmately lobed leaves with lobes arranged like the claw of a bird
Compound Leaf A compound leaf has incision reaching the midrib (or leaf base) so that there are more than one distinct blades called as leaflets or pinnae. It may similarly be
pinnate when the leaflets are borne separated along the rachis (cf. midrib of simple leaf) or palmate when the leaflets arise from a single point at the base. Pinnate compound
leaves may be further differentiated: (i) Unipinnate (simple pinnate): The leaflets are borne directly along the rachis. In paripinnate leaf (Cassia), the leaflets occur in pairs and as
such the terminal leaflet is missing and there are even numbers of leaflets. In an imparipinnate (Rosa) leaf, on the other hand, there is a terminal leaflet, resulting in odd number of
leaflets. (ii) Bipinnate (twice pinnate): The pinnae (primary leaflets) are again divided into pinnules, so that the leaflets (pinnules) are borne on the primary branches of the rachis as
in Mimosa pudica. (iii) Tripinnate (thrice pinnate): The dissection goes to the third order so that the leaflets are borne on secondary branches of the rachis as in Moring sp. (iv)
Decompound: Here the dissections go beyond the third order, as in Fennel. The term is sometimes used for leaves more than once compound.
(v) Ternate: The leaflets are present in groups of three. Leaf may be ternate (pinnate with three leaflets, i.e., trifoliolate), biternate (twice pinnate with three pinnae and three
pinnules) triternate or decompound ternate. Palmate compound leaf does not have a rachis and the leaflets arise from the top of the petiole: a) Unifoliate: A modified situation in
commonly a trifoliate leaf when the lower two leaflets are reduced and the terminal leaflet looks like a simple leaf but has a distinct joint at base, as seen in Citrus sp. plants. b)
Bifoliate (binnate): A leaf with two leaflets, as found in Hardwickia sp. c) Trifoliate (ternate): A leaf with three leaflets, as in Trifolium. The trifoliate leaf of Medicago sp. and Melilotus
sp. has terminal leaflet with a longer petiolule (stalk of leaflet) than basal leaflets and is accordingly a pinnate trifoliate leaf. d) Quadrifoliolate: A leaf with four leaflets, as in Paris and
aquatic pteridophyle Marsilea sp
LEAF ARRANGEMENT (Phyllotaxy) (from internet) a) Alternate: Bearing one leaf at each node. The successive leaves usually form a spiral pattern, in mathematical regularity so that all
leaves are found to lie in a fixed number of vertical rows or orthostichies. The arrangement commonly agrees with the Fibonacci series (Schimper-Brown series), wherein numerator
and denominator in each case are obtained by adding up the preceding two (1/2, 1/3, 1+1/2+3 = 2/5, 1+2/ 3+5 = 3/8, and so on) In grasses the leaves are in two rows (2-ranked,
distichous or ½ phyllotaxy), so that the third leaf is above the first leaf. Sedges have three rows of leaves (3-ranked, tristichous, or 1/3 phyllotaxy), the fourth leaf above the first leaf.
China rose and banyan show pentastichous arrangement, where the sixth leaf lies above the first one, but in doing so leaves complete two spirals and the phyllotaxy is known as 2/5
phyllotaxy. Carica papaya depicts octastichous arrangement, wherein the ninth leaf lies above the first one and three spirals are completed in doing so, thus a 3/8 phyllotaxy. Leaf
bases of date palm and sporophylls of pinecone are closely packed. and internodes are extremely short making it difficult to count the number of rows (orthostichies). Such an
arrangement is known as parastichous. Imbricate: The condition in which leaves are closely overlapping one another, as in Cassiope sp
B) Opposite: Bearing pairs of leaves at each node. The pairs of successive leaves may be parallel (superposed) as in Quisqualis sp. or at right angles (decussate) as in Calotropis sp. and
Stellaria sp. C) Whorled (verticillate): More than three leaves at each node as in Galium sp., Rubia sp. and Nerium sp.
MORPHOLOGY OF INFLORESCENCE, BRACTS AND BRACTEOLESD Inflorescence Inflorescence is the branch or branch-system bearing flowers or "is the arrangement of flowers on the
floral axis and is a branch system". The stalk of the inflorescence is known as peduncle. The floral axis of an inflorescence bearing flowers is called rachis and the stalk of the individual
flower is known as pedicel. Flowers having pedicels are called pedicellate and those without pedicels, i.e., stalks are sessile. Sometimes the rachis instead of developing into a long
axis, which is condensed to form fleshy, flat or dilated structure called receptacle. The inflorescence axis (i.e. rachis) developing from an underground stem is known as scape. The
small rachis of Poaceae, i.e., grass inflorescence produced beyond the flower is also known as rachilla. Inflorescences are mainly of three types (Green, 1904) I. Indefinite or
Racemose inflorescence, II. Definite or Cymose inflorescence III.Mixed inflorescence
I. Indefinite or Racemose Inflorescence This type is also known as botryose. In this type, the primary floral axis, i.e., rachis is never terminated by a flower, but continues to grow
giving off flowers laterally in acropetal order, i.e., oldest flower near the base and the youngest towards the apex, or flowers opening in centripetal manner on a fleshy and dilated
rachis called receptacle. Indefinite or racemose inflorescence consists of the following types: A. Primary axis or rachis elongated 1. Simple forms (i) Raceme: Primary axis or rachis
long, bearing pedicellate, i.e., stalked flowers: opening from base to apex, i.e., flowers open in acropetal order. Examples: Cleome viscosa (Capparidaceae), Crotalaria juncea
(Fabaceae), Brassica juncea, B. nigra (Brassicaceae), Croton bonplandianum (Euphorbiaceae), etc.; found also in other dicotyledons as well as monocotyledons. This type is not helpful
in determining a particular family as it occurs in many families. (ii) Corymb: A typical raceme with unequal flower stalks i.e. pedicels, so that the basal flowers stand on the same level
as upper ones, e.g. Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae) and Cassia sp. (Fabaceae). (iii) Spike: Like raceme but flowers are sessile, e.g. Aerva aspera, Deringia amaranthoides (Amaranthaceae)
and others. It occurs in numerous families. No particular family can be assigned to it.
(iv) Amentum or Catkin—It is a spike of unisexual flowers with weak drooping peduncle which ultimately breaks off from the parent plant. Examples: Families Juglandaceae
(Engelhardtia spicata), Betulaceae (Corylus colurna), Salicaceae (Salix tetrasperma) etc. are characterised by this inflorescence. Catkin is also found in some members of
Euphorbiaceae, e.g. Acalypha hispida, Aporosa sp., etc. (v) Spadix: It is a modified spike with fleshy rachis and large bract (the spathe) covering the inflorescence. It is found in
members of Araceae (species of Colocasia, Amorphophallus, etc.) as well as in many species of Arecaceae.
(vi) Locusta or Spikelet: This is a condensed spike subtending one or few flowers; the rachilla, i.e., floral axis may be very small or long produced beyond the glumes—the so-called
bracts of this inflorescence. In a spikelet the lower first and second bracts, known as glumes, are empty, i.e., without flowers; other bracts above it subtend flowers in their axils
known as flowering glumes or lemmas. Opposite to each lemma there stands a bracteole called palea. In a flower the perianth is usually represented by 2 or 3 lodicules which are
very small, membranous and cuneate structures at the base of the ovary. This type of inflorescence is the characteristic of the families Gramineae and Cyperaceae. But the ultimate
inflorescences formed by the spikelets are complex and compound. In Oryza sativa (rice) the spikelets are one flowered as described above and the entire inflorescence is branched
like a panicle. In Triticum aestivum (wheat) the spikelets are many flowered and are borne on unbranched axis looking like a compound spike. (vii) Strobile: It is a modified spike,
consisting of persistent membranous bracts or scales bearing pistillate (female) flower at each axil, e.g. Humulus lupulus (the hop, Cannabinaceae)
2. Compound forms Modification of simple forms — here the primary floral axis or rachis bears secondary branches upon which flowers are developed. Following are the main types
(i) Panicle or Compound Raceme: Here the flowers are borne on the branches of the main axis (i.e., branched secondary axis) instead of on the primary axis directly. This type is
common in flowering plants, e.g., Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae), Vatica sp. (Dipterocarpaceae), Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae), etc. (ii) Compound corymb also known as panicled
corymb. Here flowers are borne in corymbose manner on the branches of the main axis or rachis. Examples: Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Cassia siamea (Caesalpinaceae) etc. (iii)
Compound Spike: When sessile flowers arise on branches of the main axis in a spicate manner. Examples: Amaranthus spinosus, A. viridis, etc. Family Amaranthaceae is characterised
by this type. (iv) Compound Spadix: This type is noted in Arecaceae i.e. Palmae where the axis of a spadix branches. The entire structure is covered by a stiff boat-shaped spathe.
Example: Cocos nucifera.
B. Primary axis or rachis short:- 1. Simple form (i) Umbel: This inflorescence has a short floral axis upon which pedicellate flowers are arranged in radiating manner, the order of
development of flowers is centripetal. The family Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) is characterised by this inflorescence. Common example is Centella asiatica. 2. Compound form (i)
Compound Umbel: also characteristic of the family Apiaceae. In this type, the axis of an umbel branches, as a result compound umbel is formed. Example: Species of Foeniculum,
Coriandrum, etc. (ii) Capitate: Here several sessile flowers grow from a suppressed rachis, as a result more or less globose structure is formed — this is known as capitate
inflorescence. Example: Many plants belonging to sub-family Mimosoideae of Leguminosae such as Albizia sp. Acacia, Mimosa, etc. Like capitulum there is no receptacle
C. Primary axis fleshy and dilated (i) Capitulum, Head or Anthodium: Here the rachis is called receptacle, it is fleshy and dilated; the flowers are sessile and small, sometimes the
marginal flowers are quite different from the central ones. The marginal flowers are ligulate, female or sterile, and known as ray florets. The centrally situated flowers are bisexual
and known as disc florets. Individual florets are usually subtended by scaly bracteoles. The whole inflorescence is sheathed by involucral bracts; the opening of flowers is
centripetal. This inflorescence is the characteristic of the family Asteraceae, e.g., species of Helianthus, Tridax, etc.

II. Definite or Cymose Inflorescence Here the growth of the primary axis is checked and is thereby terminated by a flower; young flowers occur below it. In this type, flowers open
basipetally or centrifugally (in case of fleshy rachis). Cymose inflorescences are of following types: (i) Solitary terminal or axillary flower: In this type, apical or axillary bud develops
into a single flower. Example: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae). This type is included within cymose type as further development is suppressed. (ii) Monochasium or Uniparous
Cyme: In this type, the primary axis ends in a flower and one lateral branch is produced ending in a flower and the process is repeated. There are two kinds of uniparous cyme, such
as:
(a) Scorpioid cyme or Cincinnus: In this type, the primary axis with alternate suppression of lateral flowers bearing secondary axes results in a zig zag structure. The family
Boraginaceae is characterised by this inflorescence. Examples: Species of Heliotropium of the family Boraginaceae, Ranunculus bulbosus (Ranunculaceae), etc.
(b) Helicoid cyme or Bostryx: In this form, the primary axis with one-sided successive suppression of lateral secondary axes forms a helix. Examples: Hamerocallis flava (Liliaceae),
Hamelia patens (Rubiaceae), Myosotis palustris (Boraginaceae), etc..
(iii) Dichasium or Biparous Cyme: In this the primary axis terminates into central flower which opens first; at the base of the primary axis, a little distance behind the apex, two lateral
branches bearing flowers arise. Each lateral branch may again give rise to flowers in the same manner. Examples: Species of Jasminum, Nyctanthes (Oleaceae) and some members of
Caryophyllaceae (Dianthus chinensis). (iii) Polychasium or Multiparous Cyme: This type of inflorescence results when the primary axis terminates in a flower and produces behind the
apex more than two lateral secondary axes in a whorled manner. Examples: Sambucus nigra, Viburnum sp. (Caprifoliaceae), Calotropis sp. of Asclepiadaceae, etc.
Special Types of condensed Cymose Inflorescence (i) Cyathium: It is a compound cyme, characteristic of the species of Euphorbia, Pedilanthus, etc. of the family Euphorbiaceae. In
this case the receptacle terminates into a single female flower consisting of tricarpellary gynoecium only, this again is surrounded by numerous male flowers each of which consists of
single stamen — these male flowers are again arranged in scorpioid cyme. The whole inflorescence is surrounded by a glandular involucre containing nectar. (ii) Verticillaster: It is a
compound cyme, characteristic inflorescence of the family Lamiaceae. In the axils of opposite leaves at first a dichasium is produced, then each branch of the dichasium passes into a
cincinnus. The flowers are almost sessile and the axes are so short that the flowers are crowded round the stem. So a verticillaster consists of a simple biparous cyme and scorpioid
cymes. Examples: Species of Leonurus, Coleus, Ocimum, Leucas, etc. of the family Lamiaceae.
(iii) Hypanthodium: The inflorescence hypanthodium is composed of three fused primary axes or rachis of closely placed cymes; as a result of such fusion a cup-shaped fleshy
concave receptacle almost or completely closed structure with a small opening at the apex results. The unisexual flowers (three types, e.g. male, fertile female and sterile female)
are arranged all over the inner surface of the receptacle in cymose groups. Example: Ficus cunea (Moraceae).
(iv) Coenanthium: This is found in Dorstenia sp. (Moraceae) where the receptacle is more or less flat with little upwardly curved margins ; minute flowers are embedded within the
receptacle. (v) Cymose capitate or Cymose head: When the flowers develop on a suppressed globular rachis in a cymose manner to form a capitate or head-like structure, it is called
cymose capitate. Example: Anthocephalus indica (Rubiaceae).
III. Mixed Inflorescence: Besides the typical racemose and cymose inflorescences, several mixed types are often found. Here the combinations of a racemose type and cymose type or of
two racemose types e.g. raceme with spike, raceme with umbel, etc. are noted. In sunflower, dahlia, etc. the individual inflorescence is racemose, but with respect to the opening of the
inflorescence the top apical inflorescence opens first and the lateral ones lower down opens later like cymose. (a) Mixed Panicle: It is a compound type and the combination of
racemose and cymose or irregularly arranged flowers. The primary axis bears flowers in racemose manner and secondary axes bear flowers irregularly though terminal flowers open
first like cymose. Example: Ligustrum vulgare (Oleaceae).
(b) Mixed Spadix: Here cymosely arranged flower-groups are racemosely arranged on the thick fleshy primary axis in acropetal manner and each flower group is subtended by a spathe,
e.g. Musa paradisiaca (Musaceae).
(c) Cymose umbel: This is seen in Allium cepa (Onion, Liliaceae), Calotropis sp. (Asclepiadaceae), etc. where cluster of cymose inflorescences are developed in "umbel" type.
(d) Cymose corymb or Corymbose cyme: Here clusters of cymose inflorescences are arranged in corymbose manner. Example: Ixora spp., Oldenlandia corymbosa (Rubiaceae),
Holarrhena antidysenterica (Apocynaceae), etc. There is a special type of cymose corymb known as fascicle. Here the successive axes of a polychasial inflorescence are of equal lengths
so that flowers are arranged to the same level in a corymbose manner. Example: Garcinia of the family Guttiferae and some species of Caryophyllaceae. (e) Thyrsus: In this form, several
cymose clusters are arranged acropetally forming the shape of a double cone on a raceme type of primary axis. Example: Inflorescence of Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae).
Bracts are morphologically specialised leaves from the axil of which flowers, either solitary or in clusters (on floral axis) are developed. Bracteoles are smaller than bracts, either thin
leafy or scaly structures developing on flower stalks in between bracts and calyx. Types of Bracts: Bracts may be of different types as follows:

(a) Leafy or Foliaceous bracts: When bracts are typically and ordinarily green foliage leaf-like, e.g. Hibiscus sp. (Malvaceae), Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae), etc. (b) Petaloid bracts:
When bracts are coloured and showy like petals, e.g. Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae), Euphorbia pulcherrima (Euphorbiaceae), etc. (c) Scaly bracts: When bracts become
thin and scale-like as seen in disc florets of capitulum inflorescence of Asteraceae. (d) Spathy bract: Here the bracts are thick, large and boat-shaped and they either completely or
partly surround the inflorescence, e.g. bracts of spadix inflorescence of Araceae, Palmae etc. (e) Involucre of bracts: In this type, bracts are arranged in one or more whorls around
the base of the flower or inflorescence, e.g. Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae), Daucus carota var. sativa (Apiaceae), etc. (f) Glumes, Lemmas: These are dry, stiff and scaly bracts as
seen in members of the families Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Glumes are non-flowering bracts while lemmas are flowering bracts carrying flowers at their axils. (g) Epicalyx: It is a
bracteole in nature, occurring at the base of the calyx whorl, as seen in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and other members of the family Malvaceae. (h) Cupule: When bracts or bracteoles
grow together at the base of the flower and form a cupshaped hard body surrounding the fruit of some plants, e.g. Corylus sp. (hazel) of Betulaceae.