ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE of ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT of ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE of
ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
(EMEg - 3131 )
 OUTLINE

1. Fundamentals of Power Systems

2. Transmission Line Parameters
3. Mechanical Design of Transmission Lines
4. Characteristic and Performance of Power
Transmission Lines
5. Overhead Line Insulators
6. Underground Cables and Fault Analysis
7. Power System Transients, Power System
2 Stability & Load Flow Studies
 Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Power Systems

 AC and DC transmission
 Single-phase and three-phase transmission
 Complex power
 Structure of a power system
 Representation of power system components
 Single-phase solution of balanced three-phase networks
 One-line diagram and impedance or reactance diagram per unit (PU)

3
 Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Power Systems
 System – Refers to an interconnection of various elements to act together.

 Control System - Refers to an interconnection of various elements to act

together to produce desired output for a given/specified input.

 Electrical System – Refers to an interconnection of electrical elements to

act together to produce desired response for a given excitation.

 Electrical Elements
 Voltage Source
 Current Source
 Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive elements and
 Electrical control and protection elements 4
 Fundamentals of Power Systems Cont’d
 Power System – is an interconnected network, consisting of :
 Major Generating Stations
 Power Transmission Systems and
 Distribution Systems
 Loads
☞ Generating stations and Distribution Systems are connected through
transmission systems to supply electricity to consumers .
 The six main components of a power system are:
 Power Plant,
 Power Transformer,
 Transmission Line,
 Substation,
 Distribution Line and
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 Distribution Transformer.
Overview of Power Systems

6
 Overview of Power Systems Cont’d
 Generation Station: source of power, ideally with a specified voltage and
frequency.
 The major source of primary energy are :-
 Fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil), Hydro power, Nuclear power, Solar energy,
Geothermal energy, Wind energy, etc.
☞Power Transmission System :- refers to the bulk transfer of power by high-
voltage links between central generation and load centers. It consists of:
☞ Power Transformer - a static electrical device used to step up or step down a.c.
voltage from one level to another. (usually rated above 2500 kVA)
☞ Transmission lines - have resistance, inductance, capacitance and flow limitations.
Used to transmit power from generating stations to substation and sub-
transmission customers( Voltage level above 33kV). And
☞ Substations :- consists of switchyard, switchgear and control room components.
Used for controlling and switching of the supplied power, as well as for
protecting power equipment from damage. 7
 Overview of Power Systems Cont’d
 Distribution Systems :- connects all the loads in a particular area
to the transmission lines. It consists of:
 Distribution Transformer - a static electrical device used to convert the
distribution voltage down to the final consumption level. (usually rated
below 500 kVA)
 Distribution Lines - Used to transfer power from substation step down
transformers to distribution transformers and final consumers(Voltage
level < 33kV).
☞ Loads :- The major consumption groups are industrial, residential
(domestic) and commercial.

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 Structure of Power System
Generation, Transmission and Distribution systems are the main component
of an electric power system.
Generation stations and Distribution systems are connected through
transmission line.
Distribution system is mainly responsible for the conveyance of power to the
customer by means of lower power.
Electric power is generated at a specific voltage magnitude and stepped up
by step up transformers to transmits it in transmission network.
The network which receives all the generated power is called the super grid.
A grid can feed a sub station network.

9
 Structure of Power System Cont’d
Part of typical power system

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 Structure of Power System Cont’d
Power Supply Network is divided in to Transmission and Distribution network.

Transmission Network
 Primary System
 Secondary (Sub-transmission) System
Distribution Network
 Primary Distribution System
 Secondary Distribution System
Distribution network contains
 Higher number of branches
 Higher number of sources
 Several 3-phase Step-down transformer
 3-phase 4-wire lines (220 V)

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 Structure of Power System Cont’d
Typical Distribution System

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 AC and DC Transmission
 Two ways to transport electricity – Alternating current (AC) and Direct
current (DC).
 DC transmission – is the first form of power transmission, but as
distances and loads increase, voltage problems were encountered. Then
 The limitations of maximum distance and load were overcome with
development of ac transformer used in AC Transmission.
 Later HVDC(High Voltage DC) transmission embedded in an ac system,
by using solid-state converters at both ends of the dc line operating as
rectifier and inverter.
 Since the cost of an HVDC transmission line is less than that of an ac line
with the same capacity, but the additional cost of converters for dc
transmission is offset when the line is long enough.
 Generally assumed that overhead HVDC transmission is economical for
transmission distances longer than about 600-800 km.
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 AC Transmission
 AC (Alternating Current)- is a time varying quantity and it oscillates 60 (50)
times a second.
Advantages
It can deliver power to loads over vast distances using transformers.
AC generators are easier to build than DC generators.

Disadvantages
Very hazardous. Susceptible to voltage surges.
Complex system for analysis, computer with power system analysis software has saved
engineers.
Frequency disturbance in one system is transferred to other system
 Power swing in one system may affect the other system. Major fault in one system may lead to the
complete failure of the system. 14
 DC Transmission
 DC (Direct Current)- is a time
constant quantity. Disadvantages
Advantages  Generation of power at high DC voltage is difficult.
 It needs fewer conductor than AC  Needs extra power electronic equipment (rectifier and
inverter).
 Voltage drop in DC is less than AC transmission for
the same load and transmission end
 Dc lines have less corona loss and reduced
interference with communication systems
 Stable than AC transmission.
 Can interconnect two AC system of different
frequency.
 Fast and reliable control of magnitude and direction of
power flow by controlling firing angle.

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 Instantaneous Power In Single-phase Ac Circuits for RLC Load
☞ The instantaneous power :- absorbed by an electrical load is the product of
the instantaneous voltage across the load in volts and the instantaneous
current into the load in amperes.
☞ For AC circuits, the voltage and current are
v(t) = VM cos(t+v)
i(t) = IM cos(t+i)
The instantaneous power is simply their product

p(t) = v(t) i(t) = VM IM cos(t+v) cos(t+i)

1 1
cos cos   cos(   )  cos(   )
Since, 2 2
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 Instantaneous Power Cont’d

p(t) = ½VM IM [cos(v- i) + cos(2t+v +i)]

Constant Wave of Twice

Term Original Frequency
Therefore,

p (t )  V m I m cos(v  i )  V m I m cos(2t v  i )

2 2

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General RLC circuit
 Average power
 To calculate average power (integrate power over one cycle and divide by period)

t 0 T t 0 T
1 1
P=
T 
t0
p(t) dt =
T  V
t0
M cost   v  I M cost + i  dt

1
= VM I M cos v -  i 
2
 Since, Irms = I = IM/2 and Vrms = V = VM/2

P = VI cos v -  i 
 Recall that passive sign convention says:
 P > 0, power is being absorbed
 P < 0, power is being supplied

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 Real and Reactive Power

The instantaneous power

 Real (or average) power (Watts) :- Which is the actual power absorbed by the element
P = VI cos v -  i 
Examples Electric Heater , Electric Stove , oven Toasters, Iron …etc

 Reactive power (VAR) :- Which is the reactive power absorbed or delivered by the element
Q = VI sin  v -  i 
 Reactive power represents energy stored in reactive elements (inductors and capacitors). Its unit is
Volt Ampere Reactive (VAR)

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 Complex Power
 Complex power is the complex sum of real power and reactive power
S = P  JQ
 We can compute the average and reactive power from the complex power (S)
 complex power provide a geometric interpretation
P = Re al ( S )  ( S ) cos v -  i  Q = Im ag ( S )  ( S ) Sin v -  i 

S  Vrms I *rms  Vrms  v I rms    i

 Vrms I rms  v   i
Vrms  I rms Z

S=I2rms Z
Z  Re( Z )  j Im(Z )  Z cos Z   j sin  Z 

S  I 2rms [Re( Z )  j Im(Z )]  I 2rms Z cos Z   j sin  Z 

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 Purely Resistive Load

VI R 1 Cos 2t 

V2 2
PR = VI R   IR R W
R
VI R sin 2t 
Purely Resistive Load Cont’d
 Purely Capacitive Load
Driving voltage is
VC= = VMsin(t)
Differentiate to find current
q= CVMsin(t)
i=
Current “leads” voltage by
The instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor is

 
 1
 
PC t  = V (t )iC t   VM I M sint sin t  90  VM I M sin 2t  90  VI C cos2t  W
2
The instantaneous power injected by a capacitor is also a double-frequency sinusoid with
zero average value.
Therefore, a purely Capacitive Load injects only Reactive Power
23
Purely Capacitive Load Cont’d

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 Purely Inductive Load
Voltage is
VL== VMsin(t)
Integrate to find current
sin(t)
i=
Current “lags” voltage by
The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is
 
 1
 
PL t  = V (t )i L t   VM I M sin t sin t  90  VM I M sin 2t  90  VI L cos2t  W
2 inductor is a double-frequency
The instantaneous power absorbed by the
sinusoid with zero average value.
Therefore, a purely Inductive Load absorbs only Reactive Power
25
Purely Inductive Load Cont’d

26
Time  Phasor

V = IR

V = jLI

V =I/ jC

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 Power Factor

 Derivation of power factor (0  pf  1)

 Power factor =  
cos v   i = cos  Z L

average power P
pf = =
apparent power V rms I rms
V rms I rms cos v   i 
=  
= cos v   i = cos  Z L
V rms I rms
Power factor angle is v- i = ZL (the phase angle of the load impedance)

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 Power Factor Cont’d
☞ power factor (pf) special cases :
 purely resistive load: ZL = 0°  pf=1
 purely reactive load: ZL = ± 90°  pf=0

Power Factor Angle I/V Lag/Lead Load Equivalent

-90 < θZL < 0 Leading Equivalent RC

0 < θZL < 90 Lagging Equivalent RL

Reactive Power Load Power Factor Complex Power

Q is positive Inductive Lagging First quadrant

Q is zero Resistive pf = 1 Real valued
Q is negative Capacitive Leading Fourth quadrant

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Example 1
Q1: Determine the average and reactive power delivered by the source.

10  30
 The phasor current leaving the source is Î   1.86  98.2
2  j8  j3
 The average power delivered by the source is:
1 
PAV,source  Re 10  30 1.86  98.2  
*

2  
1
 Re 10  30 1.8698.2 
2
 9.28cos  30  98.2   3.45W
30
 The reactive power delivered by the source is:

1
Qsource  Im 10  30 1.86  98.2  *
2
1
 Im 10  30 1.8698.2 
2

 9.28sin  30  98.2   8.62 VAR

 And the complex power delivered by the source is

P̂source  PAV,source  jQsource

 3.45  j8.62VA

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Q2: Determine the average power and reactive power delivered to each
element
 The voltage across the elements are: Î  1.86  98.2
ˆ  2Iˆ  2(1.86  98.2 )  3.71  98.2 V
VR

ˆ  j8Iˆ  ( j8)(1.86  98.2 )  (890.0 )(1.86  98.2 )  14.86  8.2 V

VL

ˆ   j3Iˆ  ( j3)(1.86  98.2 )  (3  90.0 )(1.86  98.2 )

V  5.57  188.2 V
C

 Thus the complex power delivered to each element is

1 ˆ ˆ 1 1
Pˆ R  V R I *  (3.71  98.2)(1.86   98.2  *
)  (3.71  98.2)(1.8698.2 )  3.450  3.45  j0 VA
2 2 2
1 ˆ ˆ 1
Pˆ L  V L I *  (14.86  8.2)(1.86  98.2 )*  13.7990  0  j13.79 VA
2 2
1 ˆ ˆ 1
PˆC  V C I *  (5.57  188.2)(1.86  98.2 )*  5.17  90  0  j5.17 VA
2 2

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Q3: Show that conservation of complex power, average power, and reactive power is
achieved.

Pˆsource  Pˆ R  Pˆ L  PˆC
3.45  j8.62  3.45  j0  0  j13.79  0  j5.17

PAV,source  PAV,R  PAV,L  PAV,C

3.45  3.45  0  0
Qsource  QR  QL  QC
8.62  0  13.79  5.17

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 Power In Balanced Three-phase Circuits
• In the case of three-phase the same pattern exists, except that three-phase
consists of three separate and distinct single-phases with voltages of equal
amplitudes and phase differences of , which are combined so that they can be
transmitted over three wires.

Vc Ic

120º
Va

Ib Ia

Vb 120º
34
 Power In Balanced Three-phase Circuits Cont’d
Assuming that the system is balanced which means that the three-phase
voltage and current magnitudes (V or I) are the same for all three phases and
they have a phase shift of -120 and 120. It can be expressed mathematically
as follows:
𝑉 𝑎=𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 𝑉 𝑏=𝑉 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 −120 ° ) 𝑉 𝑐 =𝑉 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 +120 ° )
𝑖𝑎= 𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 − ∅ ) 𝑖𝑏 = 𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 − ∅ −120 ° ) 𝑖𝑐 =𝑉 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 +120 ° )

Therefore, for balanced three phase system, the total instantaneous power is equal to average (real) power, which is constant.
35
That is one of the reasons for using three phase system in addition to a need for bulk power transfer compared to single phase.
 Power In Balanced Three-phase Circuits Cont’d
Connection Types
There are two types of connections in three-phase circuits: Y(Wye) and
Δ(Delta) or Combined.

36
 Power In Balanced Three-phase Circuits Cont’d
A three-phase circuit may be connected either in wye or in delta. In a balanced three-
phase circuit the phase and the line values of the current, power, and voltage are related
as follows (the subscripts p and l refer to phase and line values, respectively):

Y-connected sources are most common to avoid circulating currents when there is a
small imbalance

Δ-connected loads are most common to allow easy addition and removal of loads in
each phase
 Power In Balanced Three-phase Circuits Cont’d
The delta and wye impedances are related by:

For both types of connections, the apparent and reactive powers are,
respectively,

From the above, it is clear that the phrase angle may be obtained as:

38
 Example
For a 208-V three-phase ideally balanced system shown below,
Find:
a) The magnitude of the line current
b) The magnitude of the load’s line and phase voltages and ;
c) The real, reactive, and the apparent powers consumed by the load;
d) The power factor of the load.

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 Solution
 Both, the generator and the load are Y connected, therefore, it’s easy to construct a per-phase equivalent circuit

a) Phase current

b) Phase voltage over the load:

and the magnitude of the line voltage on the load:

40
 Solution Cont’d
c) The real power consumed by the load:

The reactive power consumed by the load:

The apparent power consumed by the load:

d) The load power factor:

41
 Representation of power system components
The basic components of a power system are generators, transformers,
transmission lines, and loads.
The following Figure shows the symbols used to represent the typical
components of a power system.

42
 Representation of power system components Cont’d
The interconnections among these components in the power system
may be shown in a so-called one-line diagram.

Figure: one-line diagram of a power system

The advantage of such a one-line representation is its simplicity: One

phase represents all three phases of the balanced system;
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 Impedance and Reactance Diagrams
For analysis, the equivalent circuits of the components are shown in a
reactance diagram or an impedance diagram. Such a representation is
called an impedance diagram and if resistances are neglected its
called a reactance diagram.

Note: that only a single phase is shown.

44
 Impedance and Reactance Diagrams Cont’d
The following assumptions have been incorporated into an impedance
diagram :
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an inductive
reactance. The internal resistance of the generator is negligible compared to the
reactance.
2. The loads are inductive.
3. The transformer core is ideal, and the transformer may be represented by a
reactance.
4. The transmission line is a medium-length line and can be denoted by a T circuit.
An alternative representation, such as a ÿ circuit, is equally applicable.
5. The delta-wye-connected transformer T1 may be replaced by an equivalent wye-
wye-connected transformer (via a delta-to-wye transformation) so that the
impedance diagram may be drawn on a per-phase basis.
The reactance diagram, is drawn by neglecting all resistances, the static
loads, and the capacitance of the transmission line. 45
 The Per-Unit System
In the analysis of power networks, instead of using actual values of
quantities it is usual to express them as fractions of reference
quantities, such as rated or full-load values.
These fractions are called per unit (denoted by p.u.) and the p.u.
value of any quantity is defined as
actual value(in any unit )
base or refrence value in the same unit
The components or various sections of power system may operate
at different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for
analysis of power system, if the voltage, power, current and
impedance rating of components of power system are expressed
with reference to a common value called base value.
46
 The Per-Unit System Cont’d
• A minimum of four base quantities is required to completely define a per-unit
system; these are voltage, current, power, and impedance (or admittance).
• If two of them are set arbitrarily, then the other two become fixed. The
following relationships hold on a per-phase basis:
Recall: given the base apparent power (3
phase) and base voltage (line-to-line), the base
current and base impedance are given by

47
 The Per-Unit System Cont’d

 An equivalent way to express the per unit value is the percentage

value
where,
Percentage value = per unit value × 100%

However, percentage values are not so convenient to use since,

Vpercent ≠ Zpercent × Ipercent

48
 The Per-Unit System Cont’d
Choice of Base values
For a connected circuit, it is obvious that the same bases should be
used for the whole network.
In a transformer, two circuits are not directly connected but
magnetically coupled. The voltages of the windings are in the ratio of
turns and currents in inverse ratio.
For the coupled circuit, we should then choose
»The same base power
»Base voltages in the ratio of turns
This will ensure Spu, Vpu, Ipu, to remain unchanged when passing through an
ideal transformer 49
The Per-Unit System Cont’d

50
 The Per-Unit System Cont’d
If Different Base values are Given
If the per unit values are given based on SB1 and VB1which
are different from the chosen base SB2 and VB2 for analysis,
the given per unit values must be modified before they can be
used. Thus,

51
The Per-Unit System Cont’d

52
 The Per-Unit System Cont’d
Advantages of per unit system

I. It deal with numerics near unity rather than over a wide range. ƒ
II. Provides a more meaningful comparison of parameters of machines
with different ratings.
III. Circuit analysis of systems containing transformers of various
transformation ratios is greatly simplified.
IV. The p.u systems are ideal for the computerized analysis and simulation
of complex power system problems.
V. The ohmic value of impedances are referred to secondary is different
from the value as referred to primary. However, if base values are
selected properly, the p.u impedance is the same on the two sides of
the transformer.
VI. The circuit laws are valid in p.u systems, and the power and voltages
53
 Example
• A 300 MVA, 20 kV three-phase generator has a subtransient reactance of 20%. The generator
supplies a number of synchronous motors over 64-km transmission line having
transformers at both ends, as shown in Fig. below. The motors, all rated 13.2 kV, are
represented by just two equivalent motors. Rated inputs to the motors are 200 MVA and 100
MVA for M1 and M2, respectively. For both motors X” = 20%. The three phase transformer T1
is rated 350 MVA, 230/20 kV with leakage reactance of 10%. Transformer T2 is composed of
three single-phase transformers each rated 127/13.2 kV, 100 MVA with leakage
reactance of 10%. Series reactance of the transmission line is 0.5 Ω/km. Draw the impedance
diagram, with all impedances marked in per -unit. Select the generator rating as base in
the generator circuit.

54
Solution

55
Solution Cont’d

56
 Solution Cont’d

Fig. The resulted per-unit impedance diagram

57