MT-223 INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

 CREDIT HOURS: 2-1

 CONTACT HOURS: 5 per week

 COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Rizwan Ahmed

 SUMMARY

To provide a broad introduction to the materials used in

engineering, their properties and structures.
 MATERIALS

 The substance or substances out of which a thing is or can be made.

 Examples : Plastics , Metals, Glass, Wood, Cement, Air, Water, etc.

 MATERIALS (HISTORICAL OVERVIEW)

 Paleolithic (40,000 to 100,000 yrs ago): Stone tools and clay pots

 Mesolithic (10,000 to 40,000 yrs ago): Extensive use of stone

tools and clay, stone statues, ochre (pigment)

 Copper Age (5,000 to 10,000 yrs ago): Copper ornaments,

earthenware, metal smelting

 Bronze Age (3,000 to 5,000 yrs ago): Bronze, glass, iron smelting
 MATERIALS (HISTORICAL OVERVIEW)

 Iron Age (1000 – 3000 yrs ago): Carburized Iron, improved

forging, porcelain
 Steel and concrete (100 – 1000 yrs ago)

 Polymers (beginning early 1900s)

 Silicon (60s – )

 The present: Age of bio- and nanomaterials?

Materials can define society

 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

 Metals: Elemental metal (iron, copper etc), Alloys.

 Ceramics: Structural Ceramics (high-temperature load bearing), Whitewares (e.g.

porcelains), Glass, Electrical Ceramics (capacitors, Insulators, transducers, etc.),

Chemically Bonded Ceramics (e.g. cement and concrete)…
 Polymers: Plastics, Adhesives, Rubber…

 Composites materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly

different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components. E.g. Particulate composites,
Laminate composites, Fiber reinforced composites.
 Smart materials

 Smart materials are designed materials that have one or more properties that

can be significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external factor, such

as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields.

Examples:

1) Piezoelectric materials

2) Thermoelectric materials

3) Dielectric elastomers
 Needs for materials (i.e. final performance)

 Microelectronics: ICs, packaging...

 Infrastructure: Concrete, metal beams…

 Environmental control: biodegradable polymers, ion exchange…

 Communication/Information: fiber optics, LEDs…

 Energy: solar cells, batteries…

 Automotive: chassis, engine parts…

 Defense: night vision, light weight/high strength composites for aircrafts

 Biotechnology: medical implants, biocompatible polymers, biosensors…

 Sporting goods: bicycle frames, golf clubs… and more…

NO ENGINEERING WITHOUT MATERIALS

METALS
 METALS

 Metals are good conductors of heat.

 Metals are good conductors of electricity.

 Metals are hard. Varies from metal to metal.

 Metals have a shiny appearance.

 Metals are malleable and ductile.

 Only 3 main metals (iron, cobalt and nickel) are magnetic, the others are non-magnetic.
 Physical Properties of NonMetals

 Dull – not shiny

 Nonconductors

 Brittle

 Most nonmetals are gases at room temperature

Examples of Metal
 Classification of Metals
14

Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others Others
 Crystalline Structure Of Metals

 Solid Metals have Crystalline Structure.

 Crystal is a solid material whose constitute atoms, molecules or ions are

arranged in an ordered pattern.

 Solid material whose constitute atoms, molecules or ions are arranged in an

irregular pattern are termed as Amorphous.

 In crystals, Atoms are arranged in a 3-D geometry array called Lattice.

 Lattice is describable through a unit building block, a Unit Cell

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
 Scientific study of crystals is called Crystallography. It directly gives you the

absolute structure of the crystal.

 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

 There are 14 basic types of crystal structures or lattices. Nearly all of the

commercially important metals solidify into 1 of the 3 crystal types:

a) Body Centered Cubic (BCC)

b) Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

c) Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)
 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
7 crystal systems, 14 Bravais lattices in 3D
Simple Cubic (SC)
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)

• Coordination # = 6 , i.e. (# nearest neighbors)

The lower coordination number also results in a slightly lower APF.
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR (SC)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres

volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 (0.5a) 3
R=0.5a 3
APF =
close-packed directions a3 volume
unit cell

• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

Body Centered Cubic
BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

• Coordination # = 8
 Relationship b/w a& r in bcc

 lattice parameter , ‘a’ is related to atomic radius, ‘r’ through:

4R
a
3

Examples: iron, chromium, tungsten, and niobium

 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC

Unit cell c ontains:

1 + 8 x 1/8
= 2 atoms/unit cell

R atoms volume
a 4
unit cell 2 ( 3a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell

• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

Examples: iron, chromium, tungsten, and niobium

 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Examples: aluminium, copper, gold and silver, CH4

 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

 Coordination # = 12

 The lattice parameter, a, is related to the radius of the atom in the cell through:

a  2R 2

Examples: aluminium, copper, gold and silver, CH4

 Example: fcc & bcc

 The bcc and fcc, with their higher densities, are both quite
common in nature.

 Examples of bcc include iron, chromium, tungsten, and niobium.

 Examples of fcc include aluminium, copper, gold and silver.

 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC

Unit cell c ontains:

6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell

a atoms
4 volume
unit cell 4 ( 2a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell

• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.74

Examples: aluminium, copper, gold and silver, CH4

 Hexagonal Close Packed

 Cell of an HCP lattice is visualized as a top and bottom plane of 7 atoms,

forming a regular hexagon around a central atom. In between these planes is a

half-hexagon of 3 atoms.

Examples: Graphite
 Hexagonal Close Packed

 There are two lattice parameters in HCP, a and c, representing the basal and

height parameters respectively.

 In the ideal case, the c/a ratio is 1.633, however, deviations do occur.

 Coordination number and APF for HCP are exactly the same as those for FCC:

12 and 0.74 respectively.

 This is because they are both considered close packed structures.

Examples: Graphite
 COMPARISON OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Crystal structure coordination # packing factor

 Simple Cubic (SC) 6 0.52

 Body Centered Cubic (BCC) 8 0.68

 Face Centered Cubic (FCC) 12 0.74

 Hexagonal Close Pack (HCP) 12 0.74

 ATOMIC POSITION IN CUBIC UNIT CELL

 Atom position for the 8 corner atoms of the BCC unit cell are (0 0 0), (1 0 0),

(0 1 0), (0 0 1), (1 1 1), (1 1 0), (1 0 1), (0 1 1).

 Center atom has coordinate in BCC (½ ½ ½ ).

 DIRECTIONS IN CUBIC UNIT CELL

 We need a way to identify directions and planes of atoms.

 Direction Indices

 Position coordinates of the unit cell where the direction vector emerges from
the cube surface after being converted to integers are the Direction Indices.

Position coordinates are (1,1/2,0) & its Direction indices are [210].
 Crystallographic Equivalent

 Directions are said to be crystallographic equivalent if the atom

spacing along each direction is the same.
 Example: [100],[010],[001],[0-10][00-1],[-100] = [100]
IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
 Types of Imperfections
• Vacancy atoms (impurity) Point defects
• Interstitial atoms (impurity) 0-dimensional
• Substitutional atoms (impurity)

• Dislocations Line defects

1-dimensional
1) Edge
2) Screw

• Grain Boundaries Area defects

2-dimensional

39
 VACANCY OR VACANT LATTICE SITE

 It is formed when an atom is missing

from the lattice.

 All crystalline solids contain vacancies

defects.
 Vacancies are formed during
solidification and also as a result of
atomic vibrations.
 VACANT LATTICE SITE

• (1) A vacancy.

Actually, a vacancy would probably look more like this:

 INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY

 It is formed when an impurity atom

occupies space between lattice sites.

 In the form of an alloying element e.g. C

in Fe.

 In the form of contaminant e.g. H in Fe.

 SUBSITUTIONAL IMPURITY

 It is formed when an impurity atom

occupies normal lattice sites.

 In the form of an alloying element e.g.

Mg in Al or Ni in gold.

 In the form of contaminant e.g. Li in

NaCl.
A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS
 Line defects (DISLOCATIONS)

 A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the

atoms are misaligned.

OR

 A crystalline imperfection in which a lattice distortion is centered around a

line.
 2 TYPES OF DISLOCATION

a) EDGE DISLOCATION

b) SCREW DISLOCATION
 EDGE DISLOCATION

 It is a defect where an extra half-plane of

atoms is introduced mid way through the

crystal, distorting nearby planes of atoms.

 EDGE DISLOCATION

 The dislocation has two properties:

1) Line direction which is the direction running along the bottom of the extra

half plane.

2) Slip OR Burgers vector is the displacement distance of atoms around the

dislocation which describes the magnitude and direction of distortion.

3) In an edge dislocation, the Burgers vector or Slip is perpendicular to the line

direction.
SCREW DISLOCATION
 SCREW DISLOCATION

 It corresponds to partial tearing of the crystal plane as shown in the figure.

 Screw Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line.

 Mixed Dislocations

 A combination of edge & screw dislocations give mixed

Dislocation.
Grain Boundaries (Area Defects)
 Grain Boundaries ….

 Polycrystalline Material: Crystalline solids (most materials) generally consist

of millions of individual grains separated by grain boundaries.

 Each grain is a single crystal.

 Grain Boundaries….

 Atoms at the grain boundary are poorly packed, and do not belong to the

lattice of either grain.

 Grains come in all shapes and sizes, and it can have a big effect on the

properties of the polycrystalline metal.

 In semi-conductor industry , single crystals are necessary.

 Grain Boundaries…

 At high temperatures the grain boundaries function as sites of

weakness.
 At low temperatures, the grain boundaries helps to increase the yield
strength of the material.
 Tilt Boundary

 Boundaries consisting entirely of edge

dislocations are called tilt boundaries.

 Twist Boundary

 A boundary consisting entirely of

screw dislocations is called twist

boundary.
 Importance of Imperfections in Solids

 Imperfections in metal crystals are of extraordinary importance:

1) Diffusion processes occur because of the presence of vacancies or interstitials in

metals.

2) Metals frequently are strengthened by the incorporation of other elements in a solution.

3) Grain boundaries drastically affect the mechanical properties of metals.

4) Properties such as resistivity/conductivity also depend on the imperfections in metals.

 Diffusion

 From an atomic perspective, diffusion is just the migration of atoms from lattice
site to lattice site.

1) Vacancy Diffusion: It involves interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position

to an adjacent vacant lattice site or vacancies

2) Interstitial Diffusion: It involves atoms that migrate from an interstitial position to a

neighboring one that is empty. C & H diffusion in Fe is interstitial.

 In most metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly than vacancy
diffusion.
 Other Diffusion Paths

 Atomic diffusion may also occur along dislocations & grain boundaries.

However, in most situations, their contributions to the overall diffusion flux

are insignificant because the cross sectional area of these paths are extremely
small.
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DIFFUSION

 There are 2 main factors that significantly effect diffusion process. These are:

1) Diffusing Species: The diffusing species as well as the host material influence

the diffusion coefficient.

2) Temperature: Higher the temperature, higher will be diffusion rate. Example

for self diffusion of Fe in -Fe, the diffusion coefficient increases

21 15
10 10 m / sec 2
approximately 6 orders of magnitude (from 3* to 2.4* ).
 Quiz (2k12-A)

1) Discuss physical properties of metals?

2) Define APF? Which crystal structure has more APF & why?

3) Define direction indices? Determine direction indices of the cubic direction

b/w position coordinates (3/4, 0, 1/4) and (1/4, ½, 1/2). (2+5)

4) Differentiate b/w Substitutional & interstitial impurity?

5) Define diffusion? What are the Factors that influence diffusion?

 Quiz (2k12-B)

1) Define APF? Calculate APF of BCC & FCC structures? (2+4+4)

2) Define Miller Indices? Consider cubic crystal plane which has intercepts
(1/3, 2/3, 1). Draw the plane & Find its Miller Indices (2+4)

3) Define Burger Vector? What angle does it make with line direction in both
edge & screw dislocations? (2 + 2)