Chapter two
Methods of data collection and presentation
Methods of data collection
In order to generate valid conclusion from a data, information
has to be collected in a systematic manner
Hence, data should be collected systematically
Sources of data
Depending on the source, data can be classified as
Primary or Secondary data.
1. Primary Data
Data measured or collect by the investigator or the user
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cont’d
data is gathered for the first time by the researcher for a given
purpose
2. Secondary Data
Are second hand information which are already collected by someone
(organization) for some purpose and are available for the present study
Gathered/compiled from published and unpublished sources
Usually secondary data is obtained from book, census reports,
survey reports, official records
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METHODS OF DATA PRESNTATION
Having collected and edited the data, the next important step is to
organize it
That is to present it in a readily comprehensible condensed form that
aids in order to draw inferences from it
The process of arranging data in to classes or categories according to
similarities technically is called classification
Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for proper
presentation of data.
Mainly, the purpose of classification is to divide the data into
homogeneous groups or class
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TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
1. One-way classification: If we classify observed data based on single
characteristic
Example: the population of world may be classified by religion as Muslim,
Christian etc.
2. Two-way classification: If classify observed data based on two
characteristics at a time
Example: the population of world may be classified by Religion and Sex
3. Multi-way classification: If we classify observed data based on more
than two characteristics at a time
Example: the population of world may be classified by Religion, Sex and
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Literacy
Cont’d
The presentation of data is broadly classified in to two categories:
1. Tabular presentation
2. Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation
Frequency Distribution: is a tabular arrangement of raw data into
classes according to the size or magnitude along with corresponding
class frequencies (the number of values fall in each class)
It is the organization of raw data in table form with classes and frequencies,
where:
o Raw Data is data collected in original form
o Frequency is the number of times a certain value of class occurs
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Cont’d
The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are:
1. To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way
2. To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of the distribution.
3. To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and
spread.
4. To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation
of data
There are three basic types of frequency distributions
– Categorical frequency distribution
– Ungrouped frequency distribution
– Grouped frequency distributionSet by A.A 6
Categorical frequency Distribution
Use for data that can be place in specific categories such as
nominal or ordinal
Example: a social worker collected the following data on marital status
for 25 persons. (M=married, S=single, W=widowed, D=divorced)
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Un grouped frequency distribution
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Cont’d
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Grouped frequency Distribution
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Cont’d
Class width
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Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation of data
These are techniques for presenting data in visual displays using
geometric and pictures
Importance: -
• They have greater attraction.
• They facilitate comparison.
• They are easily understandable.
Diagrammatic presentation of data
o Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete as well as
qualitative data.
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Cont’d
The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation for
discrete as well as qualitative data are Pie charts, Pictogram & Bar
chart
Pie chart
A Pie Chart is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating relative
magnitudes or frequencies of classes of a given variable.
Pie chart usually represents categorical data but it is also possible to
use it for discrete quantitative data.
The angle of each sector has to be proportional to the relative
frequency of a given class, which is
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Cont’d
Pictogram
Data are presented with the help of pictures
Such a presentation is known as pictorial diagram or pictogram
Here the magnitudes of quantities of the variable are explained
with the help of pictures which depict the variable
approximately
In a pictogram, each symbol in the picture represents a fixed
quantity of the variable
Bar Charts
A set of bars (thick lines or narrow rectangles) representing
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Simple Bar Chart
Are used to display data of one categorical variable
They are thick lines (narrow rectangles) having the same breadth.
The magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height /length of the bar
Example: The following data represent sale by product, 1957- 1959 of a given
company for three products A, B, C.
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Component Bar chart
When there is a desire to show how a total (or aggregate) is
divided in to its component parts, we use component bar chart.
The bars represent total value of a variable with each total
broken in to its component parts and different paints or designs
are used for identifications
Example: Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by
product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:
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Multiple Bar charts
These are used to display data on more than one variable.
They are used for comparing different variables at the same
time.
Example: Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by
product from 1957 to 1959.
Solution
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Graphical Presentation of data
The histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency
graph or Ogive is most commonly applied graphical
representation for continuous data.
Procedures for constructing statistical graphs
•Draw and label the X and Y axes.
•Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative
frequencies and label it on the Y axes.
•Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or Ogive or the
mid points for the frequency polygon on the X axes.
•Plot the points.
•Draw the bars or lines to connect the points.
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Histogram
A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of
various heights to represent frequencies.
Class boundaries are placed along the horizontal axes.
Class marks and class limits are some times placed on as the X axes.
Unlike Bar graph, in the case of Histogram the categories (bars)
must be adjacent
Example: the following table summarizes the management mid exam score of
38 students out of 35 marks.
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Cont’d
If we want to draw Histogram for this data it would be like this:
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Frequency Polygon
Frequency Polygon depicts a frequency distribution for discrete or
continuous numeric data.
Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the
shapes of distributions.
A Histogram can easily be changed to Frequency Polygon by joining
the mid points of the top of the adjacent rectangles of the Histogram
with a line.
It is also possible to draw Frequency Polygon without drawing
Histogram.
Example: the following Frequency Distribution represents the ages (in
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Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)
A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more
than type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries
respectively.
That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis
and the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along
the vertical axis.
The points are joined by a free hand curve.
Example: Draw an Ogive curve(less than type) for the data
given below.
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Cont’d
Class Class
Limit F boundary LCB UCB
3-7 3 2.5-7.5 2.5 7.5
8-12 4 7.5-12.5 7.5 12.5
13-17 6 12.5-17.5 12.5 17.5
18-22 13 17.5-22.5 17.5 22.5
23-27 17 22.5-27.5 22.5 27.5
28-32 6 27.5-32.5 27.5 32.5
33-37 1 32.5-37.5 32.5 37.5
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