DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

Instrumentation and Measurement (Meng4211)

chapter 3 –Transducers and Their Response

By: Mebratu B.
 Transducers
A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable
electrical signal.
In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.
An electrical transducer is the cornerstone of electronics instrumentation because it converts the physical
quantities which are non-electrical in nature into electrical quantities.
Transducers are often termed as the heart of electronics instrumentation.

When a transducer converts a measurable quantity (temperature, pressure, level, optical intensity, magnetic
field, etc) to an electrical voltage or an electrical current we call it a sensor.
There are three basic elements for simple measuring system of transducer:
• Sensor
• Signal Conditioning Unit
• Data Representing Device

Fig block diagram for simple measuring system

Sensor
A Sensor is a device that is used to detect changes in any physical quantity like Temperature, Speed,
Flow, Level, Pressure, etc. Any changes in the input quantity will be detected by a Sensor and reflected
as changes in output quantity. Both the input and output quantities of a Sensor are Physical i.e., non-
electrical in nature.
The sensor or the sensing element is the first element in a measuring system and takes information about the
variable being measured and transforms it into a more suitable form to be measured.
Sensor is sometimes called a primary measuring element, it can be found simply as a mercury thermometer
to measure the temperature. It may be embedded in the transducer to perform its function.
Signal Conditioning Unit
The non-electrical output quantity of the Sensor makes it inconvenient to further process it. Hence, the
Signal Conditioning Unit is used to convert the physical output (or non-electrical output) of the sensor to an
electrical quantity.
Some of the best known Signal conditioning units are:
• Analog to Digital Converters
• Amplifiers
• Filters
• Rectifiers
• Modulators
 Data Representation Device
A Data representation device is used to present the measured output to the observer.
This can be anything like :
• A Scale An
• LCD Display
• A Signal Recorder
Consider a Strain Gauge as the Sensor. Any changes in the strain will reflect as changes in its resistance.
Now, in order to convert this change in resistance into equivalent voltages, you can use a simple
Wheatstone Bridge circuit, which acts as the Signal Conditioning Unit.
The combination of Strain Gauge (Sensor) and Wheatstone Bridge (Signal Conditioning Unit) is Known
as a Transducer. Generally speaking, a Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another by the principle of Transduction.
Transducers can be found both at the input as well as at the output stage of a measuring system.
The input transducer is called the sensor, because it senses the desired physical quantity and converts it
into another energy form.
The output transducer is called the actuator, because it converts the energy into a form to which another
independent system can react, whether it is a biological system or a technical system.
For example, a Microphone is a Sensor, which converts sound waves into electrical signals and a
Loudspeaker is an Actuator, which converts electrical signals into audio signals.

Both Microphone and Loudspeaker are Transducers in the sense that a microphone converts sound
energy into electrical energy and a loud speaker converts electrical energy into sound energy.
Types of Energy Form
There are different types energy domains:
1) Radiant
2) Mechanical
3) Thermal
4) Electrical
5) magnetic
6) chemical
Table 1) Energy types and corresponding measured.
 Classification of transducers
The transducers may be classified based on
i. The physical effect employed
ii. The physical quantity measured
iii. The source of energy
iv) Classification based on the basis of methods of applications
v)Transducers and Inverse Transducers
Vi) Analog transducers and digital transducers
i Classification based on physical effect
The physical quantity applied as measurand (quantity to be measured) to the transducer causes some
physical changes in its element. By this physical effect the transducer converts the physical quantity in to
electrical quantity.
For example, a change in temperature to be measured causes variation of resistance (physical change) in a
copper wire (element) and this effect could, be used to convert temperature in to an electrical output.
The physical effects commonly employed are
a. Variation of resistance
b. Variation of inductance
c. Variation of capacitance
d. Magnetostrictive effect
e. Elastic effect
 a)Variation of resistance
The resistance of a length of metallic wire is given by
R=
Where, R = Resistance in ohm.
ρ =Resistivity (or specific resistance) of the material in ohm-m.
l = length of wire in m.
A= Area of cross-section in m 2
As resistance is a function of ρ ,l , A (i.e) R= f( l,A ,ρ )with any change in anyone of the physical quantities ρ , a
or l due to variation in resistance, a variable resistance transducer can be designed to convert physical quantity.
Some of the transducers based on this principle are potentiometer, strain gauge, resistance thermometer, carbon
microphone, and photoconductive cell.
The resistance thermometer is based upon thermo resistive effect which is the change in electrical resistivity
of a metal or semiconductor due to change in temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
• Carbon microphone works on the principle of change in contact resistance due to applied pressure.
• Photoconductive cell is based on photoconductive effect which is the change in electrical conductivity
due, to incident light.
• Potentiometer works on the principle of change in resistance due to linear or rotational motion.
• Strain gauge works on the principle of change in resistance due to applied pressure.
b) Variation of inductance
The inductance of a coil is given by:
L=N
L=
where, L = inductance in henry
N = No.of turns
µo = absolute permeability
µr = relative permeability
A = area of cross section of the core
l = length of magnetic path
= rate of change of magnetic flux
As L is a function, of N, µr , A, l , (i.e) L = f (N, µr ,A, l ), when anyone of these quantities changes, the
inductance changes. This leads to the design of a variable inductance transducer. Some of the transducers
based on variation of inductance are induction potentiometer, linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
c)Variation of capacitance
The capacitance between two conductor plates is given by:
C=
Where C = capacitance in farad
= absolute permittivity
= relative permittivity of the separating medium
A = area of cross-section of the plate
As C is a function of , , ε r A d i.e C = ( , , ε r A d ) when anyone of these quantities changes, the capacitance
varies. This leads to the design of a variable capacitance transducer.
d)Magnetostrictive effect
When a magnetic material is subjected to mechanical stress, its permeability changes. This effect is
magnetostrictive effect and the transducer based on this effect is magnetostrictive transducer.
e) Elastic effect
When an elastic member is subjected to mechanical stress it is deformed. The transducer based on this effect
is called elastic transducer.
 ii Classification based on physical quantity measured
The transducers may be classified based on the physical quantity they measure as follows:
• Temperature transducers → Transducers used to measure temperature-Thermocouple
• Pressure transducers → To measure pressure –Bourdon gauge
• Flow transducers → To measure flow –Flow meter
• Liquid level transducers → To measure liquid level –Torque tube
• Force/Torque transducers→ To measure force & Torque -Dynamometer
• Velocity/Speed transducers→ To measure velocity & speed –Flow meter-speedometer
• Humidity transducers→ To measure humidity-hygrometer
• Displacement Transducer –To measure displacement- LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
• Acceleration Transducer – To measure acceleration-accelerometer
 iii Classification based on Source of Energy
Transducers are also classified based on the source of energy. Under this category, there usually two types of
transducers:1) Active transducer 2) Passive transducer
1)Active transducer
These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation(the transducers, which develop
their output the form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source). Therefore they are also called
as self generating type transducers.
The active transducer are self generating devices which operate under the energy conversion principle.
As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to
electric potential, without any external source of energy being used. Normal such transducers give very small
output and, therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.
2) passive transducer
These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are not self generating type
transducers.
A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power source.
These transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in response to the quantity to be measured.
 iv) Classification based on the methods of applications
1)Primary transducers:
The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts the physical property into the electrical signal
is called primary transducer or a sensor. Thermistor is an example of primary transducer. It senses the
temperature directly and causes the changes in its resistance with respect to temperature.

For example, consider a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature fall in this category. The
thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in temperature.
2) Secondary transducer:
When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some form other
than input signals is given as input to another transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer is called secondary transducer.
For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts pressure first
into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an LVDT. In this case
LVDT is secondary transducer.
 v)Transducers and Inverse Transducers
A transducer is generally defined as a device which converts a non electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity. Normally a transducer and associated circuit have a non-electrical input and an electrical output, for
example a thermocouple, photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc. .
An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse transducer, because current by it is converted
into a force, which causes translational or rotational displacement.
Many data indicating and recording devices are basically inverse transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter
converts electric current into mechanical movement and the characteristics of such an instrument placed at the
output of a measuring system are important.
Vi) Analog transducers and digital transducers
A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a continuous function of time is known as
Analog transducer. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple are the examples of
Analog Transducer.
On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in the form of pulses i.e., it gives
discrete output is called a digital transducer. The digital transducers are becoming very popular and useful
because the digital signals can be transmitted over a long distance.
 Fig Analog voltmeter

Fig Digital voltmeter

Basic Requirements of a Transducer(parameters should be considered in selecting a transducer)
In a measurement system the transducer is the input element with the critical function of transforming some
physical quantity to a proportional electrical signal.
The selection of most suitable transducer from commercially available instruments is very important in
designing an Instrumentation system.
The following Parameters to be considered in the selection of a transducer for a particular application .
1) Operating Principle: Basically the transducers are selected based on their operating principle. Examples
of operating principles used by the transducers are resistive, capacitive, inductive, up to electronic principle
etc.
2) Operating Range: This factor is considered so that the transducer should be able to function within the
specified range with good resolution. Every transducer should be provided with some rating within which
there will be breakdown in its function.
3)Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is necessary for measurement.
4)Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in order to
yield meaningful data.
5)Error: The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, but it should maintain the expected
input-output relationship as described with its transfer function so as to avoid errors.
7)Ruggedness: ability to withstand overload and protection measures.
8) Stability and Reliability :The transducer should have high degree of stability during its function and also
storage life. It should also have a high degree of reliability.
output should not be affected by temperature, vibration, other environmental conditions, with minimal error.
9) Good mechanical characteristics : ability to withstand deformation and deterioration in performance
caused by various mechanical strains.
10) Transient and Frequency Response:The transducer should meet desired time domain specifications like
peak overshoot, rise time, settling time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a flat frequency
response curve.
11)Good dynamic response: ability to change output quickly for dynamic variation in input with respect to
time.
12) Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified
environmental conditions maintains its input/ output relationship and does not break down.
For example, the transducer should remain operable under its temperature range. It should be able to work in
corrosive environments, should be able to withstand pressures and shocks and other interactions to which it is
subjected to.
13) Electrical aspects:The Electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer include the
length and type of cable required.
Advantages of converting a physical quantity into an electrical signal
Here, we have listed the various advantages of converting a physical quantity into an electrical signal:
• Electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
• Electrical signals process less friction error.
• Small power is needed to control the electrical systems.
• Amplification and attenuation of electrical signals are easy.
• The measuring instrument used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and accurate.
Applications of Transducer
• A transducer measures load on the engines
• They are used to detect the movement of muscles; this process is known as acceleromyograph.
• Transducers are used in an ultrasound machine.
• The transducers in a speaker convert electrical signals into acoustic sound.
• A transducer is used in the antenna to convert electromagnetic waves into an electrical signal.
• Etc.