College of
Engineering
and Technology
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Instrumentation and Measurement
BY G/MICHAEL G/MARIAM
2011 E.C
Lecture-2
Instrument types and performance
characteristics
Measuring Instruments
Measuring instrument is a device which is used for measuring the
unknown quantity.
The technology of using instruments to measure and control physical and
chemical properties of materials is called instrumentation.
Measuring instruments can be classified as:
✍ Absolute and secondary instruments
✍Analog and digital instruments
✍Manual and automatic instruments
✍Self operated and power operated instruments
✍Null and deflection type instruments
✍Contact and non-contact type instruments
Absolute and secondary instruments
Absolute instruments- value of the measurand is
in terms of instrument constant and its
deflection.
Secondary instruments-they give the magnitude
of the electrical quantity to be measured
directly.
We can measure directly the value of the
unknown quantity.
The can be classified as indicating, integrating
and recording instruments.
Eg. Ammeter, voltmeter etc.
Analog and digital instruments
Analog instruments- provide
an analog output (the output
is continuous).
Eg. Analog ammeter, analog
voltmeter etc.
Digital instruments- provide
a digital output(the output is
discrete)
Eg. Digital ammeter, digital
voltmeter etc.
Manual and Automatic instruments
Manual measuring instruments- service
of an operator is required.
Eg. Resistance thermometer incorporating
a wheatstone bridge
Automatic measuring instruments- no
operater is required.
Eg. Glass tube thermometer,
Self operated and power operated instruments
Self operated or passive measuring
instruments- those in which no
outside power is required for
operation.
Eg. Dial indicator
Power operated measuring
instruments- those in which some
external power such as electricity,
compressed air and hydraulic supply
is required for operation.
Eg. Electromechanical instruments.
Null and deflection type instruments
Null type measuring instruments- a
zero or null indication leads to
determination of the magnitude of
unknown quantity.
Eg. Wheatstone bridge, weight
balance with out pointer
Deflection type measuring
instruments- deflection of
instrument or pointer indicates the
measurement of unknown quantity.
Eg.
Contact and non-contact type instruments
Contact type measuring
instruments- the primary sensing
element of the instrument is
physically contacted with the
measurand.
Eg. Thermometer
Non-contact type measuring
instruments- no contact b/n the
primary sensing element of the
instrument and the measurand.
Eg. Infrared thermometer
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Classification of the functional elements
of an instrument:
✍ PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT
(PSE)- PSE of the instrument is the part
of the instrument which first come into
contact with the measurand. Measurand is
the object on which the measurement is
made or anything in which the exercise of
measurement is done. For a very good
measuring instrument the PSE should
cause a minimum disturbance on the
measurand. Bulb, (PSE)
Cntd…
✍Variable conversion element (VCE)- used to convert
one form of signal to another form of signal. VCE should
maintain the original nature of the signal.
Eg. Transducers
✍Variable manipulation element (VME)- this does not
change the nature of the signal. VME should maintain
the original nature of the signal. Eg. Amplification or
attenuation of voltage.
low current------- high/medium current
Small angle------- large/medium angle etc.
Cntd…
✍Data transmission elements (DTE)- used for
transmitting data from one place to another place. Eg.
Cables and wires, shafts, belts etc.
✍Data presentation elements (DPE)- used to display the
output of the measurement or the output signal. Eg.
Computer screen, dial gauge screen etc.
Generalized functional elements of temperature
measuring instrument
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Measurement characteristics shows the
performance of instruments to be used.
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
Cntd…
Static characteristics- changes slowly with time or do
not vary with time.
• E.g. Linearity, sensitivity, resolution, threshold, accuracy
etc.
Dynamic characteristics- refers to the comparison b/n
instrument output and ideal output when the input
changes with time.
e.g. speed of response, overshoot, fidelity etc.
Static characteristics of instruments
1. Accuracy- is the closeness of the measurement ( or a
set of observations) to the true value.
• The ability of an instrument to show the exact reading.
• Higher the accuracy, lower the error.
• Shown in percentage of error
Error = E= measured value – true value
Or E = system output – system input
Cntd…
E.g. if pressure gauge of range 0 to 100 bar has an error of
+-1% of true value, the pressure of 100 bar could read from
99 to 101 bar.
E.g. if pressure gauge of range 0 to 100 bar has an error of +-1% of
full scale reading, the true value of a pressure of 100 bar could be read
from 90 to 110 bar.
Cntd…
2. Precision- the capability of an instrument to show the
same reading when used each time.
• An instrument which is precise is not necessarily
accurate.
Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy High accuracy
Low precision High precision Low precision High precision
Cntd…
3. Range and span
a. Range- the region b/n which an instrument is designed to
operate for measuring, indicating or recording of a
physical quantity. The range is stated by expressing the
lower and upper values.
E.g. Range -100℃ to 100℃
b. Span- algebraic differences b/n the upper and lower range
values of the instrument.
An instrument which have a reading range of -100℃ to
100℃, the span is 200℃
Cntd…
4. Linearity- when incremental changes in the input and
output are constant over the specified range.
Linearity simply means that the output is linearly
proportional to the input.
Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and
the straight line.
Cntd…
Cntd…
5. Resolution/ discrimination- the smallest change in
input reading that can be traced accurately.
6. Sensitivity- this is the relationship b/n a change in the
output reading for a given change of the input.
Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument
magnification.
An instrument with a large sensitivity (scale factor) will
indicate a large movement of the indicator for a small
input change.
Cntd…
7. Dead zone- range of input reading when there is no
change in output (unresponsive system)
It is the largest change of input quantity for which there is
no output the instrument.
Cntd…
8. Threshold- if the instrument input is very gradually
increased from zero there will be a minimum value
required to give a detectable output change. this
minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.
Cntd…
9. Hysteresis- the magnitude of
error caused in the output for a
given value of input, when this
value is approached from
opposite directions, i.e. from
ascending order and then
descending order.
Causes are backlash, elastic
deformation, magnetic
characteristics, frictional effects
Cntd…
10. Drift-
Zero drift variation in the
output of an instrument
which is not caused by any
change in the input.
It is commonly caused by
internal temperature changes
and component instability.
11.Repeatability- it is the ability of the measuring
instrument to give the same value every time, the
measurement of given quantity is repeated, under the
same condition.
Repeatability refers to a sensor’s ability to give identical
outputs for the same input.
Precision (or random) errors cause a lack of
repeatability.
Dynamic characteristics
1. Speed of Response- it is defined as the rapidity with
which an instrument responds to a change in the
value of the quantity being measured.
2. Fidelity- the degree of closeness with which the
system indicates or records the signal impressed
upon it.
It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input.
Poor fidelity indicates non-linearity of instrument.
Cntd…
3. Overshoot- because
of mass and inertia of
moving part, i.e. the
pointer of the
instrument does not
immediately come to
rest in the final
deflected position.
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