Design and Construction of Pavements

Elective III

Design Methods

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Design of flexible pavements
Introduction to analysis and design of flexible pavements,
Stresses and deflections in homogeneous masses, Burmister’s
2 layer and 3 layer theories, Wheel load stresses, ESWL of
multiple wheels, Repeated loads and EWL factors, Empirical,
semi - empirical and theoretical approaches for flexible
pavement design, Group index, CBR, Triaxial, Mcleod and
Burmister layered system methods
Empirical, semi - empirical and theoretical
approaches for flexible pavement design,
Group index, CBR, Triaxial, Mcleod and
Burmister layered system methods
General
Tremendous changes over years

Objective: Desired quality of service and structural adequacy, using

locally available materials at reasonable cost

Many methods available, broadly

Empirical

Theoretical

Mechanistic Empirical

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Empirical methods
Factors: vary widely

Empirical relationships developed

Classified in to three groups

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Empirical Methods
Group 1

Crust thickness derived from soil classification, grain size, moisture

content, Atterberg limits, truck traffic volume, and experience record

e.g. Group index (GI)

Not successful as strength, climatic, environmental and in-situ conditions

are not considered

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Group Index Method
Group Index (GI)

a number assigned to the soil based on its physical properties like particle size,
Liquid limit and plastic limit

varies from a value of 0 to 20, lower the value higher is the quality of the sub-
grade and greater the value, poor is the sub-grade

Higher GI value means a thicker pavement is required

(source: theconstructor.org)

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Group Index

GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01bd

Where,

a= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 35 per cent, not exceeding 75

b= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 15 per cent, not exceeding 55

c= Liquid limit in per cent in excess of 40

d= Plasticity index in excess of 10

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Pavement design using GI
1. Group index of soil subgrade 2. Traffic volume

Group index value range of different soils: It is the measure of Annual average daily traffic,
peak-hour traffic. It is denominated by commercial
For good soil – 0 to 1 vehicles/day or CVPD.
For fair soil – 2 to 4
It is classified in three categories. Based on number
For poor soil – 5 to 9 of vehicles per day.
For very poor soil – 10 to 20
If no. of vehicles per days is

<50 – light traffic

50-300 – medium traffic

>300 – Heavy traffic

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Pavement design using GI
Calculation total thickness (T):

From chart for given group index of soil subgrade and traffic volume value select appropriate
thick curve value of “combined thickness of surface, base and sub-base line” which will give
the total thickness of pavement

(Note: thick line indicates the total thickness value and the dotted line indicates thickness of
surface and base)

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Group index design chart

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Group index method
Calculation of thickness of base and surface course (t b & ts):
Thickness of surface and base course = total thickness – sub-base thickness

= T – tsb

The combined value of thickness of base and surface course can be found out from above chart form
dotted curve with the help of group index value and traffic volume.

Or otherwise assume the thickness of surface course (t s) = 5 cm

Then thickness of the base course,

Tb = T-tsb-ts

The group index method is essentially an empirical method based on the physical properties of the subgrade soil and
it does not consider the strength characteristics of soil and is therefore disputed regarding its reliability

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 Illustration

Soil Subgrade sample collected from the site was analysed and the results are given below;
Soil portion passing 0.074 mm sieve, percent =50
Liquid limit =40
Plastic limit = 20
Design the pavement section by GI method for the anticipated traffic volume of over 300 commercial
vehicles per day.
GI =7: a=15; b=35; c=0; d=10
From design chart; soil rated as poor traffic volume – heavy. Use design chart ,
Thickness of sub base for GI of 7 is 17cm
Combined thickness of surface, base and sub base course(using curve D for heavy traffic) =47 cm.
Hence thickness of surface and base = 47 -17 =30 cm.

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Empirical Methods
Group 2 Methods:
Thickness design charts using CBR methods (California Bearing Ratio)
Material strength parameters North Dakota Cone Method (Cone
penetrometer, penetration value)
Density
US Navy method (plate load test, k)
Truck volume
California Resistance Value Method
Climate, environment, frost, ground
water level (stabilometer and cohesiometer ,R and C)
Parameters related to in-situ Triaxial Method (triaxial compression,
conditions elastic modulus)
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CBR methods

CBR: Developed by O. J. Porter (1938), of California Division of Highways

Adopted by U.S Army Corps of Engineers in World War II for design of

base course of airfield pavements

Basic concept: CBR

Penetration resistance (internal friction plus cohesion) offered by a

compacted soil specimen, against a hydraulically loaded plunger of
50mm dia, at 1.25 mm per minute rate. This is compared with a standard
specimen of crushed limestone, for penetrations of 2.5 and 5 mm
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CBR Test Procedure
Fill a mould (15 cm dia, 127.3 cm high) in 5 layers with compacted soil at OMC, over a disc,
rammed by means of a drop hammer (use 20 kg dry sample, passing 20 mm sieve)

Cut the top level, invert the mould, replace disc by annular surcharge weight 0f 2.5 kg
(optional: soak for four days, drain for 15 mins)

Place in a 50 kN loading machine, fix plunger, measuring units, dial gauge, and apply load
noting it for pentrations of 0,0.5, 1.,1.5, 2,2.5,4,5,7.5,10, 12.5

Prepare a load-penetration chart, apply corrections as necessary

Find loads corresponding to 2.5 and 5 mm penetration, find CBR ratio of this load with
standard load

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Standard Load

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CBR Graph

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 P (1+r) n+10

P – no: of CVPD in the last count

n – no: of years between the last
count and the year of completion of
construction
 Empirical expression

T=]0.5 =] 0.5

T =pavement thickness, cm
P=wheel load, kg
p =tyre pressure, kg/cm2
A =area of contact,cm2

When the CBR value of the subgrade soil is less than 15 percent.

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 Illustration
The CBR value of subgrade soil is 5%.Calculate the total thickness of a pavement using
design curve developed by California State Highway Department
ii) design chart recommended by IRC
iii) design formula developed by the US corps of Engineers
Assume 4100 kg wheel load or medium light of 200 cvpd for design.
Tyre pressure =6kg/cm2

Solution
Using the design chart recommended by IRC, thickness =37.5 cm
Using design formula, t =35.5 cm

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 Illustration 2

CBR value of subgrade soil = 4 percent

Compacted sandy soil with 7 percent CBR
Poorly graded gravel with 20 percent CBR
Well graded gravel with 95 percent CBR
Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surfacing may be taken as 5 cm. The traffic survey
revealed the present ADT of commercial vehicle as 1200. The annual growth rate of traffic is
found to be 8 percent.The pavement construction is to be completed in three years after the last
traffic count.
Design the pavement section by CBR method as recommended by IRC, using all the four pavement
materials
Suggest alternate design without using the poorly graded gravel.
Discuss the limitation of CBR method of pavement design in the light of the above results.
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 Solution

No: of vehicles for design A=P(1+r) n+10

=3260 veh/day
Design Curve F is to be used for design
From the design chart the total pavement thickness over subgrade having CBR of 4 percent is
obtained as 55cm for curve F
This thickness of pavement required to cover the natural soil subgrade having 4% CBR value.
To compute the thickness of compacted soil, curve F is used for CBR 7%.
Thickness of compacted soil =55-40 =15 cm.
Similarly, thickness of poorly graded soil of CBR 20% =40-21 =19 cm
For well graded gravel of CBR 95 % =21-8 =13 cm
Surface course =8 cm

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CBR method of Design by cum. std axle load
Basic information

1. Initial traffic after construction in terms of number of Commercial Vehicles per day

2. Traffic growth rate during the design life in percentage

3. Design life in number of years

4. Spectrum of axle loads

5. Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)

6. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway

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Design Traffic

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CBR method of Design by cum. std axle load..Contd..

IRC suggested the minimum thickness of the pavement component layers of sub base,
base and surfacing and the combinations of various ranges of cumulative standard
axles.
For the range of 20 to 30msa, the sub base should have CBR at least 30% and the
minimum compacted thickness of this component should be 390 to 405 mm; the base
course should have a minimum compacted thickness of 250 mm and the surfacing
should consist of 100 to 150mm dense bituminous macadam and 40mm asphaltic
concrete.

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Tri axial Method
Palmer and Barber in 1910
Boussinesque’s displacement equation for homogeneous elastic single layer

From which
T= where T=pavement thickness, cm.
p = contact pressure, kg/cm2
P=wheel load, kg
Es=modulus of elasticity of subgrade from triaxial test results, kg/cm 2
a=radius of contact area
=design deflection(0.25cm)

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Tri axial Method Contd….
● Introducing traffic coefficient (X)and saturation coefficient(Y)
● Ts= where
Ts-pavement thickness

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Tri axial Method Contd…

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 Tri axial Method Contd…
● If the pavement and subgrade are considered as a two layer system, a stiffness
factor has to be introduced to take into account the different values of modulus of
elasticity of the two layers.
● The pavement thickness is calculated

Ts= (Es/Ep)1/3

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Tri axial Method Contd…
● Relation between pavement layers of thickness t 1 and t2 of Elastic modulus E1 and
E2 is given by
t1/t2 = (E2/E1)1/3

Kansas Highway Department design method may be categorised as semi empirical method.

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 Illustration
● Design the pavement section by triaxial test method using the following data:

○ Wheel load =4100 kg

○ Radius of contact area = 15 cm
○ Traffic coefficient X =1.5
○ Rainfall coefficient Y= 0.9
○ Design deflection =0.25 cm

○ Esubgrade =100 kg/cm2

○ E base =400 kg/cm2

○ E value of 7.5 cm bituminous concrete surface cour se =1000kg/cm2

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● Assuming the pavement to consist of single layer of base course material only the
pavement thickness
Ts= (Es/Ep)1/3

● Sub: pavement thickness = 65.9 cm

● Let 7.5cm bituminous concrete surface with Es=1000kg/cm 2
● tb/tc = (Ec/Eb)1/3: tb=10.2cm
● Equivalent replacement tb
● Required base course thickness =65.9- 10.2 =55.7 cm

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 Mc Leod Method
● Canadian Department of transport
● Plate bearing tests

T=K log
P= gross wheel load ,kg
S = total subgrade support, kg( for the same contact area,
deflections and number of repetitions of load P)
K=base course constant

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● K depends upon the loaded area.
● S is calculated from the subgrade support or calculated for 30cm dia plate at 0.5
cm deflection for the design of pavement

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 Illustration
● Design a highway pavement for a wheel load of 4100kg with a tyre
pressure of 5kg/cm2 by Mc Leod method. The plate load test carrying out
on subgrade soil using 30cm dia plate yielded a pressure of 2.5kg/cm2
after 10 repetitions of load at 0.5cm deflection.
Radius of contact area a= =16.1 cm
Perimeter over area ratio P/A =2/a =0.124

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Using the fig. the ratio of unit subgrade support on 32.2cm dia plate at 0.5 cm
deflection is 0.95

Unit support at 0.5 cm deflection =0.95*2.5 =2.44kg/cm2

Design subgrade support on 32.2 cm dia plate ,
S = 2.44 * 3.14*32.2^2/4 =2100kg
Base course constant for 32.2 cm di plate from fig as 90
Granular pavement thickness = K log10P/S =26cm
Provide 5cm of bituminous surfacing

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Theoretical or Analytical or Pure Mechanistic
Layered analysis

Have limitation & assumptions

No accurate, direct solutions

Hence Mechanistic empirical methods

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Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) or Analytical-Empirical
or Rational design

Strains at various layers and interfaces

Stresses at various layers

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Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) or Analytical-Empirical or
Rational design
Empirical methods supported by Mechanistic Principles

Two major steps

1. Calculating response of pavement layers (at critical locations: stress,

strains)

2. Comparison of theoretical values to allowable values (stress, strains)

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Failure criteria
Distress or damage caused by critical values of stresses and strains are computed
(rutting, cracking etc. or other failures)

Major modes of failure; terminal conditions

Failure modes:

Fatigue cracking of bound layers (top-down or bottom-up)

Rutting (deformation along wheel path)

Low temperature (thermal) cracking

Critical mechanistic parameters are kept within limits

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Failure criteria (Dormon, 1962)
Based on Parallel works by Saal and Pell at uty of Nottingham (1962), in
conjunction with Shell Labs (1960) and Uty of California (1961).

Utilised world wide, including India (IRC 37, 2001)

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 310
mm
Pavement layers: Dual tyre

Bituminous t t Layer 1, h1, E1, μ1 (Rut resistant)

Layer 2, h2, E2, μ2 (Fatigue resistant)

GB t Granular Layer (Treated/Untreated) 3, h 3, E3, μ3

GSB
Layer n-1, hn-1, En-1, μn-1
v
Layer n, hn, En, μn (subgrade)
Subgrade
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Stress and strains

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Responses computed
t
Tensile strain at bottom of bituminous bound layer
Compressive strain at top of subgrade  v
Stress and strain at various layers and interfaces

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Performance Criteria
Relationship between limiting values of mechanistic parameters and
service life

Forms core of pavement design and evaluation methodology

But these two are important too

i) Appropriate theory for analysis

ii) Inputs, especially material properties (for analytical model)

Various ME methods

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Performance indicators
Pavement roughness for all pavements, quantified according to the
International Roughness Index (IRI),

along with specific indicators according to the pavement type:

Flexible: rutting, fatigue (or alligator) cracking, longitudinal cracking,

and transverse cracking

Rigid: joint faulting and slab cracking

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MEPD in essence….
Theory for Selection of
analysis Inputs

Performance Criteria
(Design and Evaluation)

Failure Criteria
(Modes, Terminal conditions)

Design and Evaluation

Outputs

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Input Hierarchy
In order to produce satisfactory results, the MEPDG relies on a high level of detail
being supplied as input parameters for materials and traffic

Determining all of the parameters involved requires extensive testing and data
collection, needs an already existing data set

As an alternative, the MEPDG software can be set up so these inputs are entered
in a hierarchical fashion, meaning that the user has the option to provide different
levels of detail and the program adjusts accordingly

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Input Hierarchy
For example, traffic data in its simplest form could simply be an estimate of vehicle
traffic volumes

MEPDG process relies on traffic data to calculate pavement loads

So software would need to convert this into a load factor by assuming a typical
distribution of vehicle types

If actual traffic counts for a project site is available, including vehicle class
information, this would allow an additional level of input in the hierarchy

Assumptions would still need to be made about the spectrum of actual loads
based on equivalency factors (ESALs or Equivalent Single Axle Loads)

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IRC Method based on MEPDG
With every load repetition, the tensile strain developed at the bottom of the
bituminous layer develops micro cracks, which go on widening and expanding till
the load repetitions are large enough for the cracks to propagate to the surface
over an area of the surface that is unacceptable from the point of view of long term
serviceability of the pavement

The phenomenon is called fatigue of the bituminous layer and the number of load
repetitions in terms of standard axles that cause fatigue denotes the fatigue life of
the pavement.

In IRC 37:2012 guidelines, cracking in 20 per cent area has been considered for
traffic up to 30 msa
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Fatigue model

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Fatigue: The factor “C”
As per the then prevailing practice, the mixes used in the pavements under study
sections were generally designed for 4.5 per cent air voids and bitumen content of
4.5 per cent by weight of the mix (which in terms of volume would come to 11.5
per cent)

Most literature recommend a factor 'C to be introduced in fatigue models to take

into account the effect of air voids (Va ) and volume of bitumen (Vb ), which is given
by the following relationships

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Rutting
Rutting is the permanent deformation in pavement usually occurring longitudinally along the
wheel path. The rutting may partly be caused by deformation in the subgrade and other non-
bituminous layers which would reflect to the overlying layers to take a deformed shape

The bituminous mixes also may undergo rutting due to secondary compaction and shear
deformation under heavy traffic load and higher temperature

Excessive rutting greatly reduces the serviceability of the pavement and therefore, it has to
be limited to a certain reasonable value

In the IRC 37:2012 guidelines the limiting rutting is recommended as 20 mm in 20 per cent
of the length for design traffic up to 30 MSA and 10 per cent of the length for the design
traffic beyond

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Rutting Model
Like the fatigue model, rutting model also has been calibrated in studies
using the pavement performance data at 80 per cent and 90 per cent
reliability levels

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Design Catalogues (for various CBR and msa, based on IIT
Pave, IIT Kharagpur)

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Pavement layers in MEPD

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SAMI
SAMI
Software interface: General

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67
Diversity …in
Terms of failure modes

Terminal conditions for failure

Analysis theories

Procedure for selecting material properties

Traffic loading estimation

Reliability

Methods followed for evaluation

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Methods (numerous)
COmparing Mix and PAvement StructureS (COMPASS)

Asphalt Institute Method

AUSTROADS pavement Design Guide

WSDOT Pavement Guide

AASHTO ME Design Guide

IIT PAVE (IIT Kharagpur)

IRC 37: 2001, 12

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Advantages
Structural analysis possible

Precise strength assessment of individual layers

Better alternative designs

Cost-effective design/rehabilitation

Uncertainties accounted for

Flexible to incorporate distress models

Precision in analysing local failure modes

Theoretical modelling to verify and validate new techniques

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