Chapter 2

Symbolic Logic

1
 Section 2-1

Truth, Equivalence and Implication

2
 More on Implication
 Universal Implication: A statement p implies a
statement q, if q is true in every situation that
makes p true. pq

 EX: (x>2)  (x>1)

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 More on Implication

 Ex:
Show that p ^ q implies p V (¬p ^ q)

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 Def.

 A universally true statement is true for each

element of the universe.
Ex:
Universe: Flipping 2 coins.
- if there is exactly one tail then there is exactly
one head.
The above statement is a universally true
statement.
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 Tautology

 A tautologically true statement is a statement

that is always true ( it can be written as a
symbolic statement whose truth table has
only Trues in the final column).
 Ex: “The result has 2 H’s or the result doesn’t
have 2 H’s” ( p V ¬p)
The statement is always true (tautology).

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 Contradiction

 A statement that is always false.

Ex: p ^ ¬ p is always false ( a contradiction).

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 Example

 p is the statement: x<=0

 q is the statement: x>=10
 Universe: R

Show that ¬(p V q) and ¬p ^ ¬q are

equivalent.

8
 Section 2.3

Predicate Logic
Propositional logic cannot adequately express
statements in mathematics and natural
language.
Statements involving variables such that:
X>3 , x=y+3 , x+y=z
Computer x is under attack by an intruder
Statements like these are often found in mathematical assertions,
computer programs and system specifications.
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 Propositional Logic

 In propositional logic we used symbols to

represent simple statements ( p, q, r, s)
 we also used symbols and logical
connectives ( V, ^, , ⊕, ¬ ) to represent
compound statements.

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 Predicate Logic
 A predicate is a function that always evaluates to
either true or false.
 A predicate has the form:
Predicate-name( List of Arguments).
Ex:
x is a positive number
Predicate: positive number (x)
Positive number (5)= True
Positive number (-5)= False

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 Predicate Logic

Ex:
“ 5 is greater than 2”
We define the predicate greater than as:
Greater than( x, y): x>y
P (x, y): x>y
P(2,5)= False
P(5,2)= True

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 Predicate Logic

1- Uses predicates to represent simple

statements.
2- Uses Logical connectives ( V, ^, , ⊕, ¬ )
3- Quantifiers:
Universal quantifier: 
Existential quantifier: 
4- Variables: x, y, z….. .

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 Predicate Logic

- Quantifiers are used to express the extent to

which a predicate is true over a range of
elements.
- Domain is important when quantifiers are
used
-  and  have higher priority than all logical
operators from propositional logic
Ex: x p(x) ∨ q(x) === (x p(x)) ∨ q(x)
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 Predicate Logic
 Ex: Consider the statement “ x is greater than 14”.
Predicate: p( x, y): x>y
P( x,14): x>14
- There is a value greater than 14 is represented
as .........
- All values are greater than 14 is represented as
……….
- All values are less than 14 as……………..

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 Predicate Logic

 Ex:
Element x belongs to set A.

B (x, A): Element x belongs to set A.

- Every element in A belongs also to B is
represented as: x [ b( x, A)  b( x, B)]

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 Free and Bound variables

 The variable x is said to be bound by x or

by x if x lies in the scope of the quantifier.
 A variable that is not bound by a quantifier is
said to be free.

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 Free and Bound Variables
Ex: Below, describe the scope of each quantifier, and
describe which variables are bound and which are
free.
- x ( p (x) ^ y (t( x, y) ^ r(x)))
No free variables.
- ¬ x (p(x) ^ y (t(x,y)) V r(z))
Z is free.
- ¬ x (p(x) ^ y (t(x,y)) V r(y)).
Y in t(x,y) is bound but the y in r(y) is free.

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 Free and Bound Variables

 Ex:
- x [ b( x, A)]  b( x, B)

Means: If A is the universe, x belongs to B.

What is the scope of the quantifier?
- x [ b( x, A)]  x [b( x, B)]

It means: If A is the universe then B is the

universe.

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 Predicate Logic
 Ex:
Assume b(x,A) represents the statement “x belongs to A”.
Represent each of the following in predicate logic:
- 2 belongs to S.
- 1 belongs to A and 2 belongs to B.
- All elements in A are positive.
- There is an element in A that is not in B.
- There is an element in A that is greater then any element in B.
- A is a subset in B.

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 Predicate Logic ( quantifiers)

 The statement x s(x) is true iff s is true for

every element in the universe.
 The statement x s(x) is true iff s is true for at
least one element in the universe.

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 Predicate Logic (quantifiers)
Ex: Suppose
Universe: the set of +ve integers
s(x) represents “x is an even integer”
p(x) represents “x is a prime integer”
r(x) represents “ x>2”

Which of the following are true and which are false?

- x p(x)
- x p(x)
- x (p(x) ^ s(x))
- x (p(x) ^ s(x) ^ r(x))
- x (s(x)  p(x))
- x (p(x)  s(x))
- x (p(x)  s(x))
- x [(r(x)^s(x))p(x)]

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 Predicate Logic (quantifiers)
Ex: Suppose
Universe: the set of +ve integers
s(x) represents “x is an even integer”
p(x) represents “x is a prime integer”
r(x) represents “ x>2”

Which of the following are true and which are false?

- x p(x) …. True( try x=2)
- x p(x) …. False (try x=4)
- x (p(x) ^ s(x)) … true ( x=2)
- x (p(x) ^ s(x) ^ r(x)) …false
- x (s(x)  p(x))…false ( try x=4)
- x (p(x)  s(x))…false (try x=3)
- x (p(x)  s(x))… true (x=2)
- x [(r(x)^s(x))p(x)] …. true(x=2)

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 Equivalence

 Two statements p and q in predicate logic

are equivalent if for any universe and for any
statements about the universe we substitute
for p,q the resulting statements about the
universe are equivalent.

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 Equivalence Rules
 The following quantified statements are equivalent.
- x(¬ s (x)) ↔ ¬ x (s (x))
- (x s(x)) ^t(y) ↔ x (s(x) ^t(y))
- (x s(x)) ^t(y) ↔ x (s(x) ^t(y))
- (x s(x)) v t(y) ↔  x (s(x) v t(y))
- (x s(x)) v t(y) ↔ x (s(x) v t(y))
- [x p(x)] ^ [x q(x)] ↔ x [p(x) ^ q(x)]
- [x p(x)] v [z q(z)] ↔ x [p(x) v q(x)]

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 Equivalence

 Ex:
- [w p(w)] ^ [w q(w)]
- w [p(w) ^ q(w)]

Are they equivalent? Why?

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 Equivalence

Ex:
- y [x p(x,y)]
- x [y p(x,y)]

Are they equivalent? Why?

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 Equivalence
(negating quantified expressions)

 x(¬ s (x)) is equivalent to ¬ x (s (x))

 ¬ x p(x) is equivalent to x ¬ p(x)

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 Example

 Demorgan’s Law for quantifiers

Negation Equivalent When is When
statement negation false?
ture?
¬ x p(x) x ¬p(x) For every x, There is an
p(x) is false x for which
p(x) is true
¬ x p(x) x ¬p(x) There is an P(x) is true
x for which for every x
p(x) is false

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 Example

Show that the following are logically

equivalent:
¬ x (p(x)  q(x)) and x (p(x) ^ ¬ q(x))

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 Note

 We can distribute  over ^ but not vice versa

also we can distribute  over v

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 Translating from English into
logical expressions

 Express the statements:

1- a. Some students in class have visited Italy
b. What if we are interested in people other than those in class ( different
universe) ?

2- a. Every student in this class has visited

either Austria or Italy
b. Again, what if the domain (universe) consists of all people?

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 Translating from English into
logical expressions

 Solution
1- a. x L(x)
b. x (L(x) ^ S(x))
caution: x (S(x) L(x)) is wrong, why?
Hint: think of someone not in class

2- a. x (L(x) v A(x))
b. x (S(x)  L(x) v A(x))
Could we use one predicate for visiting Italy or
33 Austria? How?
 Using quantifiers in system
specifications

Use predicates and quantifiers to express the

system specifications
1- Every mail message larger than one
megabyte will be compressed

2- If a user is active, at least one network link

will be available

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 Using quantifiers in system
specifications

 Solution
1- m (S(m,1)  C(m))

2- u A(u)  n S(n , available)

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 Exercise

Consider the following statements:

- All lions are fierce
- Some lions do not drink coffee
- Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee
- p(x): x is a lion q(x): x is fierce

r(x): x drinks coffee

Express the given statements using the above
Predicates (Example 26 page 50,51)
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 Programming by Logic (prolog)
 Prolog has facts and rules (used to define new predicates using those
already defined)
 instructor(chan, math273).
 instructor(patel, ee222).
 instructor(grossman, cs301).
 enrolled(kevin, math273).
 enrolled(juana, ee222).
 enrolled(juana, cs301).
 enrolled(kiko, math273).
 enrolled(kiko, cs301).
 teaches(P, S) <= instructor(P, C) , enrolled(S, C).
 ? enrolled(kevin, math273) Produces the response: yes
 ? enrolled(x , math273) Produces the response: Kevin Kiko
 ?teaches(x, Juana) Produces the response: Patel Grossman
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 Section 2.2

Proof Methods:
- Direct proof
- Indirect proofs:

a- Contra positive inference

b- Proof by contradiction

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 Converses
 The statement qp is the converse of the
statement pq.
 If pq is true, it does not mean that qp is
true.
-Ex:
-If n is a positive even integer, then n>1. (pq)
- 5>1, then 5 is a positive even integer
(qp)....false

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 Counter-example

 To show that a statement is theorem we give

a proof.
 To show that a statement is false (not
theorem), we give a counter-example.
Ex:
“ If n is a positive integer, then n >5”
Counter-example: n=4 (positive and <5)

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 Direct proof or principle of direct
inference (also called modus ponens)
 If we know that r is true, and rs is true, we conclude that s is true.
 A direct proof has the form:
Statement1
Statement 2
.
.
.
Statement n

Where statement n is the one we want to prove and each other statement
is:
a- a hypothesis
b- an accepted mathematical fact
c- the result of applying direct inference to earlier statements

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 Direct proof

 Ex:
Prove that if the integers n and m are each
multiple of 3, then m+n is a multiple of 3.

Note: The word assume precedes the

hypothesis and the words ( therefore, then)
precedes the inference.

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 Contra positive Inference

To show that pq, we show that ¬q¬p

Ex:
Prove that for each number n of the universe of
positive integers, if n2 >100 then n>10.

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 Proof by Contradiction

 From p and p^¬q¬p we conclude q.

 If assuming that ¬q leads to contradiction,
the q is true.
Ex:
Prove that if x2 +x-2 =0 then x ≠ 0

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 Example

 Show that if the following statements are true

p
pq
qr
rs
Then s is also true.
(Prove it by both direct and contradiction).

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 Proof by Contrapositive

Note:
 There are plenty of examples of statements which
are hard to prove directly, but whose contrapositive
can easily be proved directly. This is all that proof by
contrapositive does.
 It gives a direct proof of the contrapositive of the
implication. This is enough because the
contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original
implication.
 Recall that an implication p→q is logically equivalent

46 to its contrapositive ¬q→¬p

 Example
Prove:
for all integers a and b, if a+b is odd, then a is odd or b
is odd (but not both).
Note:
The problem with trying a direct proof is that it will be hard to
separate a and b from knowing something about a+b.
On the other hand, if we know something about a and b
separately, then combining them might give us information about
a+b. The contrapositive of the statement we are trying to prove is:
for all integers a and b, if a and b are even, then a+b is even.

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 Proof by contradiction

Note:
 There might be statements which really cannot be rephrased as
implications (not easy to prove them by direct proof or by
contrapositive inference(.
 If we can prove that ¬p leads to a contradiction, then the only
conclusion is that ¬p is false, so p is true.
 Proof by contradiction can be applied to a much broader class of
statements than proof by contraposition, which only works for
implications.
 There are proofs of implications by contradiction that cannot be directly
rephrased into proofs by contraposition
 The key benefit of proof by contradiction is that you can stop when you
find any contradiction, not only a contradiction directly involving the
48 hypotheses.
 Example

Prove:
There are no integers x and y such that
x2=4y+2.

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 Example

Prove:
If x is a multiple of 6 then x is a multiple of 2

50