Having stimulus control means that the

probability of the behavior varies depending upon

the stimuli present.

•If a behavior is under stimulus control then

– The behavior happens when the stimulus is
present
– The behavior doesn’t happen when the
stimulus is absent
 Stimulus Generalization
When a response is reinforced in the presence of one
stimulus there is a general tendency to respond in the
presence of new stimuli that have similar physical
properties ore have been associated with the
stimulus.
 loose degree of stimulus control

 E.g., All men with beards are Daddy

Stimulus discrimination is taught by using

generalization training procedures,
reinforcing responses to many similar stimuli.
 Stimulus Discrimination
Definition: Degree to which antecedent stimuli set the
occasion for particular responses
Precise degree of stimulus control
 E.g., Man has beard and is Daddy; Man has beard

and is Uncle Eddie

Stimulus discrimination is taught by using

discrimination training procedures such as
differential reinforcement
Stimulus discrimination training requires
One behavior
Two antecedent stimulus conditions (the SD and the S)
Responses that occur in the presence of the SD are
reinforced (thus, the response increases in the presence of
the SD)
Responses that occur in the presence of the S are not
reinforced (this, the response decreases in the presence of
the S
Can also result in a lesser amount or quality of
reinforcement
 SD :
“What’s your
favorite color?”

Response: Reinforcer:
“red” “Super! You
said red!”
SΔ:
No praise
“What’s your
name?”
 Essentially opposite processes
As discrimination increases, generalization decreases
As discrimination decreases, generalization increases

 Discrimination
Responding differently to 2 or more stimuli
Tight degree of stimulus control

 Generalization
Responding similarly to 2 or more stimuli
Loose degree of stimulus control
If you teach “green” using this color circle …

Student’s
most likely Student’s less
to say likely to say
Student’s less likely “green” “green”
to say “green” (discrimination)
(discrimination)
 Many essential tasks require discrimination
skills

 Reading.
 Labeling Objects.
 Following directions.
 Following activity schedules.
 Greeting people.
 Self-care skills.
 Reinforcement
 Differential reinforcement with rich schedules of
reinforcement
 Reinforce stimuli that are part of concept
 Must learn to attend to specific elements of the
stimuli, not just the whole stimulus

 Pre-attending Skills
 Type of instructor or materials
 sitting up tall, ready to work (awake and functioning!)
 no stereotypy or other misbehavior
 In respondent conditioning, a previously
neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned
stimulus (CS) when it is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (US).

 The CS elicits a conditioned response (CR)

similar to the unconditioned response (UR)
elicited by the US.
 Respondent conditioning is most effective
when the NS immediately precedes the US.

 Higher-order conditioning can occur when a

NS is paired with an already-established CS.
 Respondent behaviors involve bodily
responses that have survival value.

 One type of respondent behavior is a

 conditioned emotional response (CER).

 CERsmay be negative (such as fear and anxiety)

or positive (such as happiness).
Respondent extinction
occurs when the CS is presented
numerous times in the absence of the US.
• Factors that influence respondent
conditioning
– intensity of the US or the CS, the temporal
relationship between the CS and the US,
– the contingency between the CS and the US,
– the number of pairings, and the person’s
previous

Exposure to the CS.

– Respondent conditioning occurs when a NS is
paired with a US and the NS becomes a CS that
can elicit a CR.
Operant conditioning

occurs when a behavior is reinforced in the

presence of an SD and the behavior is then more
likely to occur in the future when the SD is
present.
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)
 Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned response (CR)
 A stimulus that produces the unconditioned
response without previous pairing with
another stimulus

UCS
(food pellet)
 An unlearned response elicited by the
presentation of an US.
 A stimulus that acquires its eliciting
properties through previous pairing with
another stimulus.
 A learned response elicited by the
presentation of a conditioned stimulus.
 Unconditioned Response

UCS UCR
(food pellet) (salivation)

An UCR is a reflex response elicited

by an UCS. The food pellet elicits
salivation.
 Respondent Conditioning

UCS UCR
(food pellet) (salivation)
pairing
neutral stimulus
(click of pellet
dispenser)

Following repeated pairings of the

UCS and a neutral stimulus...
Respondent Conditioning
CS CR
(click of pellet (salivation)
dispenser)

…the neutral stimulus, when

presented alone, elicits the CR. The
neutral stimulus is now a CS (no
longer neutral) because of the
conditioning history.
Respondent Conditioning
CS CR
(click of pellet (salivation)
dispenser)

…the neutral stimulus, when

presented alone, elicits the CR. The
neutral stimulus is now a CS (no
longer neutral) because of the
conditioning history.
Feature Respondent Operant
conditioning conditioning
Procedure Stimuli precede Consequences
response follow response
Response Non response Response is
occurrence necessary necessary
Parts of organism Glands & smooth Striped muscles
involved muscles
Response control Involuntary Voluntary
 Watson & Rayner

UCS UCR
(Striking iron bar) (fear response)
pairing
neutral stimulus
(White rat)

Following repeated pairings of the

UCS and a neutral stimulus...
 Watson & Rayner
CS CR
(White rat) (fear response)

…the neutral stimulus, when

presented alone, elicits the CR. The
neutral stimulus is now a CS (no
longer neutral) because of the
conditioning history.
 Establishing a conditioned stimulus by pairing
a neutral stimulus with an already
established conditioned stimulus.
 Watson & Rayner

CS CR
(white rat) (fear response)
pairing
neutral stimulus
(Santa’s beard)

Following repeated pairings of the

CS and a neutral stimulus...
 Present the conditioned stimulus without
pairing it with the unconditioned stimulus or
with an already established conditioned
stimulus, and the conditioned stimulus will
lose its eliciting power.
 Differential reinforcement
 Reinforced practice – reinforce
approaching aversive and fear-
evoking stimuli
 Also involves respondent extinction
(repeated presentations of the CS
without the UCS)
 Prompting and
Transfer of Stimulus
Control
 Used to develop stimulus control
(to get the right behavior to
occur at the right time)

Used to develop new behaviors

Examples:
Teaching Trevor to hit a baseball
Teaching Natasha to read English words
Learning new material for a class
 Teachers
 Coaches
 Parents
 Trainers
 An antecedent stimulus or event that
controls a response

 A prompt gets the behavior to occur in the

correct situation so the behavior can be
reinforced

SD + prompt  R  SR
 Response prompts
 Stimulus prompts
 Involve the behavior of another person

- Verbal prompt
- Gestural prompt
- Modeling prompt
- Physical prompt
 Involve change in an antecedent stimulus
- Within stimulus prompt

- Extra-stimulus prompt
SD (prompt) ------------> R -------------> SR

Baseball thrown ----> swing the ---------> hit the

by pitcher bat correctly baseball,
(coach’s assistance) get praise

Written word “ENTER” ----> student ----> praise

(teacher says “enter”) says “enter”
Getting the behavior to occur in
the presence of the SD without
prompts

 Fading
 Prompt delay
 Gradual removal of a prompt while the response
occurs in the presence of the SD

 Prompt fading - Gradually removing the response

prompt
Example: Coach provides less and less physical
assistance to Trevor to hit the ball

 Stimulus fading - Gradually removing the

stimulus prompt
Example: Students look at the answers on the flash
cards less and less as they learn the answers to
multiplication problems
 Present the SD, wait X number of
seconds, then present the prompt (if
needed)

 Example:
The teacher shows the word to
Natasha and waits 4 sec.
If Natasha does not say the word, the
teacher says the word as a prompt
1. Choose the most appropriate prompt
strategy
2. Get the learner’s attention
3. Present the SD
4. Prompt the correct response
5. Reinforce the correct response
6. Fade the prompts over trials
7. Continue to reinforce unprompted responses
8. Use intermittent reinforcement for
maintenance
 SD -----------> R ----------->SR
practice test question correct answer self-praise
(+ prompt)

 Prompt = looking up the correct answer

 Fade prompts until you can answer the question

without looking it up
 SD - A question on one side
 R - Providing the correct answer
 Prompt - The correct answer on the other
side of the index card
 Fading - Look at the answer on the card
less and less until you can give the answer
without looking
Behavioral
Chaining
SD1 --> R1
SD2 --> R2
SD3 --> R3
SD4 --> R4 --> SR
 Identification of all stimuli (SDs) and
responses (Rs) in a behavioral chain

 Example: Eating a bowl of oatmeal

(SD1) bowl of oatmeal, spoon in hand ---> (R1) put
spoon in food
(SD2) spoon in food -----> (R2) scoop food onto
spoon
(SD3) food on spoon ----> (R3) Put food in mouth
----> (SR) eat
 Backward Chaining
Teach last S-R component first.
Then teach next to last
component, and so on.

 Forward Chaining
Teach first S-R component first.
Then teach second component, and so on.
1. Present the SD
2. Verbal and physical prompt
3. Praise (and possibly other reinforcers) for
correct response
4. Fade prompts
5. When response occurs without prompts,
move to the next S-R component
6. Continue steps 1-5 until done
 Execute the whole S-R chain in each training
trial

 Use graduated guidance in each trial

 Fade to shadowing and then fade shadowing

(SD1) brochures, envelopes on table ---> (R1) pick up brochure
(SD2) brochure in hand, envelopes on table ---> (R2) pick up
envelope
(SD3) brochure and envelope in hand ---> (R3) put brochure
in envelope
(SD4) stuffed envelope in hand ---> (R4) put stuffed envelope in the
box ----> (SR) praise
 To start backward chaining procedures:
Present SD4, prompt R4, and reinforce

 To start forward chaining procedures:

Present SD1, prompt R1, and reinforce

 With total task presentation:

Prompt the learner through all the steps in the chain
1. Is chaining the right procedure?
 Learning a new behavior vs. noncompliance?
 Can’t do vs. won’t do problem?
2. Develop a task analysis of the S-R chain
3. Collect baseline data
4. Choose the chaining procedure and
implement
5. Continue to collect data
6. Shift to intermittent reinforcement for
maintenance
 Picture prompts
 Written task analysis
 Self-instructions
Behavioral Skills Training
(BST) Procedures
Behavioral Skills Training (BST) Procedures

 Used to teach new behaviors

Used for behaviors that can be simulated in a

role play

Used with learners who can follow instructions

and imitate models

May be used individually or in groups

Examples of the use of BST:

Teaching parenting skills

 Teaching assertiveness

Teaching abduction prevention skills

 Teaching social skills

Teaching skills to prevent gun play

 Teaching Crisis Management Systems

 Teaching Behavior Plans

 Teaching Therapy Orders

 Teaching Transfers

 Teaching language programs

BST Components

1.Instructions
2. Model
3. Rehearsal
4. Feedback
5.Repeat steps 3-4 until the learner performs
the behavior successfully without assistance
1. Instructions – preferably written
 Identify and define the skills to teach
 Identify all relevant contexts (antecedents)
and needed materials
2. Model – Describe the behavior and model it
in a realistic role-play context
3. Rehearsal – Allow the learner to rehearse
the behavior in the role-play context
4. Feedback – Keep it positive
5. Repeat steps 3-5 until the learner performs
the behavior successfully without
assistance
Instructions
• Must be understood by the learner
– keep educational level in mind
• Given by a person with credibility
• Use instructions with modeling when
necessary
• Give instructions when the learner is paying
attention
Modeling
• Model has high status or similarity
• Model’s behavior is reinforced
• Complexity of the model is appropriate for the
learner
• The learner must pay attention to the model
• The model’s behavior occurs in the proper
context (in a role play or real life)
• Repeat as necessary
• Use a variety of exemplars
• Describe important aspects of the model’s
behavior
• Have the learner describe important aspects of
the model’s behavior
Rehearsal
• Conducted immediately after instructions
and modeling
• Rehearsal in the proper context, similar to
real life
• Is typically uncomfortable for learners, but
essential to learning new skills
• “It is not enough to be told what skills are
important and see them demonstrated
The best way to learn skills is to also have the
opportunity for rehearsal and feedback so that
the skills can be reinforced.
 Work from easy to hard behaviors or
situations (program for success)
Feedback and Praise
• Praise correct behavior immediately
• Always praise some aspect of the
performance
– this eases the discomfort of rehearsal
• Use descriptive praise
• Give feedback (instructions for
improvement) on one aspect of performance at
a time
• Do not make corrective feedback negative
(do not criticize)
• Mix praise and feedback
• More on this later
Promoting generalization
• Use realistic role plays that simulate
the full range of situations
• Incorporate real life stimuli into
training
• Practice skills outside of sessions in
real life situations
• Arrange to reinforce skills outside of
training sessions
• Practice in all the different areas and
situations that you can!
BST in Groups Involves:
•There’s a lot of observational learning that goes
on
•Opportunity for multiple models in multiple
situations (multiple exemplars)
•Opportunity to observe others’ rehearsals
•Opportunity to observe feedback received by
others
•Opportunity to evaluate others’ performance
and provide feedback
•Less individual rehearsal and feedback
 Differential
Reinforcement
 DRA (differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior)

 DRO (differential reinforcement of other

behavior)

 DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates

of responding)
 Reinforcer is delivered for desirable behavior

 Extinction for the problem behavior

 DRI = Differential reinforcement of
incompatible behavior

 DRC = Differential reinforcement of

communication (functional communication
training)
 A child’s good table manners are reinforced with
praise and by passing the requested food. The child’s
bad table manners are extinguished by ignoring and
not passing food.
 Punching the correct code numbers in the ATM is
reinforced with cash. Punching the wrong numbers in
the ATM is extinguished by getting no cash.

 Reinforce playing or sharing to replace fighting in

children.
 Reinforce lying quietly in the dentists chair to replace
disruptive behavior.
 Reinforce an assertive response to replace aggressive
behavior.
1. You want to increase a desirable behavior
and/or decrease undesirable behaviors.

2. The desirable behavior already occurs at least

occasionally.

3. You have a reinforcer you can use.

1. Define the target behavior to increase and the
undesirable competing behavior(s) to decrease
2. Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior
3. Choose a reinforcer for the desirable behavior
4. Reinforce desirable behavior immediately and
consistently
- prompt the desirable behavior if necessary
- the desirable behavior should require less response
effort than the problem behavior
5. Eliminate (or minimize) the reinforcer for the
undesirable behavior(s)
6. Use intermittent reinforcement for maintenance
 Consider establishing operations to make the
reinforcer more potent

 Consider the use of rules or instructions

 Fade artificial reinforcers to natural

reinforcers to help maintain the behavior

 Consider using the Premack principle

 Ask
 Observe
 Test
 Desirable behavior produces escape or avoidance of
aversive stimulus

 Undesirable behavior does not produce

escape/avoidance
 Also called differential reinforcement of zero
rate of behavior
 Reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the
problem behavior in intervals of time
 Intervals are chosen based on the baseline level
of the problem behavior
 Extinction for the occurrence of the problem
behavior
 If the problem behavior occurs, the interval is
reset
Breaksfrom academic tasks delivered every 20
minutes for the absence of problem behaviors

Accessto a favorite toy given each ½ hour for the

absence of fighting with siblings
 Whole interval DRO - the problem must be absent
for the whole interval for reinforcement (referred
to simply as DRO)

 Momentary DRO - the problem must be absent at

the end of the interval for reinforcement
1. Identify the reinforcer for the problem
behavior
2. Identify the reinforcer to use in DRO
3. Choose the DRO interval
4. Use extinction for the problem behavior
(or minimize the reinforcement for the problem)
5. Deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the
problem behavior in each interval
6. The occurrence of the problem behavior resets
the interval for delivery of the reinforcer
7. Gradually increase the DRO interval
8. Use instructions when applicable
 Used to get a behavior to occur less (not necessarily
to eliminate the behavior)

 Two types of DRL

- Full session DRL
- Spaced responding DRL
 The reinforcer is delivered when fewer than a
specified number of responses occurs per time
period (session)

 The reinforcer is delivered at the end of the session

 The timing of responses in the session is not

important
 The reinforcer is delivered for a response
when it is separated from the previous
response by a specified interval of time

 If a response occurs before the end of the

interval, the interval is reset

 Individual responses are reinforced when the

IRT is greater than X

 The timing of responses is important

Full session DRL
 Reward given for smoking fewer than 5
cigarettes per day
 Dessert given if the child gets up from the
table fewer than 3 times during supper
Spaced responding DRL
 Child called on to answer in class only if it
has been 10 minutes since he last raised
his hand
 Person with ID allowed to take a bite of
food only if 15 sec since last bite of food
1. Is DRL the appropriate procedure?
- Do you want to decrease but not eliminate the
behavior?
2. Determine the acceptable level of the behavior
3. Decide on full session DRL or spaced responding DRL
4. Inform the client of the criterion for reinforcement
5. Use a procedure to give the client feedback on number
of responses or timing of responses
6. Use intermediate goals if necessary
 DRO - at the end of the interval, the
reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the
behavior

 DRL - at the end of the interval, the

reinforcer is delivered for the first response

 In DRO and DRL, a response before the end

of the interval resets the interval
Antecedent Control
Procedures
 Based on functional assessment information
 One of three functional, nonaversive interventions
 Involves altering the environment in advance of the
target behavior
 Addresses antecedents rather than consequences of
operant behavior
 Addresses consequences indirectly through manipulation
of establishing operations
 Increases the probability of the desirable target
behavior and decreases the probability of undesirable
alternative behavior
 Also called stimulus control procedures or situational
inducement
1. Present SD or cues for desirable behavior

2. Present EO for desirable behavior

3. Decrease response effort for desirable behavior

 The desirable behavior is under the stimulus
control of the SD

 When the SD is present, the behavior is more

likely

 Cues serve as prompts or reminders

 Seating arrangement to facilitate conversation in
a nursing home

 Fruit in the fridge

 Going to the library to study

 Activity placemats at restaurants

 An EO makes the reinforcer for the desirable
behavior more potent

 An EO increases the probability of the

desirable behavior
 No snacks before meal time

 Arrange a contact for getting work done

 No naps to make sleeping more likely at night

 Pictures of rotten teeth to make flossing more likely

 Decrease wait time for ID person who has to stand in

line at a store
 A behavior is more probable when it requires less
response effort than does a concurrent operant

 Response effort may be decreased through

environmental manipulation
 Recycling box next to desk

 Healthy foods in easy reach

 Books in backpack

 Easy to use car seats

 Coffee shop on every corner

1. Remove SDs or cues for competing behaviors

2. Eliminate EOs for competing behaviors

3. Increase response effort for competing behavior

 In the absence of the SD, the competing behavior is
less likely
 Get junk food out of the house

 Keep partying friends out of your place at study

time

 Separate fighting kids at the restaurant

 Don’t drive past McDonalds after school

 Without an EO, the reinforcer for competing
behavior will not be potent

 Without an EO, the competing behavior is less likely

to occur
 Curriculum modifications to reduce problem
behavior maintained by escape

 Noncontingent attention, tangibles, or breaks

 Provide choice of activities

 Pain relief
 Mood induction
 Food shopping only after eating
 A behavior that requires more response effort than
a concurrent operant is less likely

 Response effort is increased through environmental

manipulation
 No change in pockets/purse for candy machines
 No junk food in the house
 Seat aggressive person away from victim
 Keep trash can away from desk (recycle box on
desk)
 Assess antecedents and consequences for
desirable behavior and competing behavior
 Assess response effort for desirable and
competing behaviors
 Determine which relevant SDs and EOs you can
manipulate
 Determine whether you can manipulate
response effort for desirable or competing
behaviors
 Have you identified the relevant antecedents?

 Can these antecedents be altered?

 How acceptable will it be to alter these
antecedents?
Self-Management
 Self-management problems include
behavioral excesses and behavioral deficits

 Self-management problems involve a conflict

between short term contingencies and long
term consequences

 Short term contingencies control the

behavior
 Short term Long
term
contingencies consequences
-----------------------------------------------------------
(Excess) Pos. reinforcing Negative
less resp. effort
(Alt. beh.) Less reinforcing Positive
or punishing
more resp. effort
------------------------------------------------------------
(Deficit) Punishing or Positive
less reinforcing
(Alt. beh.) More reinforcing Negative
less resp. effort
 Must analyze the target behavior and
alternative behaviors (behavioral excess and
deficit) in self-management
 In self-management you engage in a controlling
behavior in the present to influence the
controlled behavior in the future
 Controllingbehavior = self-management strategy
 Controlled behavior = target behavior to be
changed in a self-management program
1. Goal setting and self-monitoring
2. Antecedent manipulations to influence the
target behavior or alternative behaviors (ch 16)
- Manipulate SDs, EOs, or response effort
3. Arranging reinforcers and punishers
4. Behavioral contracting (chapter 23)
5. Social support
6. Self-instructions (rules) and self-praise
1. Make the decision to do it (commitment).
2. Define target behaviors and competing behaviors.
3. Set a goal.
4. Develop a self-monitoring plan and begin self-
monitoring.
5. Conduct a functional assessment of the antecedents and
consequences of the target behavior and alternative
behaviors.
6. Implement appropriate self-management strategies
based on functional assessment information
7. Evaluate change from baseline once self-management
strategies are implemented
8. Modify self-management strategies if necessary
9. Implement maintenance strategies to keep the change
going over time
 Unclear descriptions of antecedents and consequences in
the functional assessment
 Unclear descriptions of intervention procedures
 Examples: “I’ll just make myself do it.”
“I’ll work harder to stop it.”
“I’ll talk myself into doing it.”
 Procedures aren’t practical - too much $$, time, or effort
 Procedures aren’t based on functional assessment
information
 Consequences are too delayed to be effective
 Consequences are too weak or easily short-circuited
 token economies are reinforcement
systems that employ a monetary
system(token reinforcers) and backup
reinforcers
 token economies employ widespread use
of tokens within groups of individuals
 token economies can be used to control a
wide range of behaviors
 token economies typically use diverse
consequences
 identify target behaviors
 define target behaviors so that all
involved can identify instances of
appropriate and inappropriate behavior
 conduct a functional analysis
 recruit and train staff
 establish baselines
 tokens can take many forms but should be:
 durable
 easy to handle
 difficult to steal
 difficult to counterfeit

 systems can have graded value for tokens

 systems can associate different types of
tokens with different behaviors
 systems can use group or individual
contingencies
 use direct and indirect assessment
procedures to identify backup consequences
 use a wide variety of backup consequences
 some systems use response cost procedures
to punish inappropriate behavior
 ensure backup reinforcers are on hand
 clearly describe criteria for earning and
exchanging tokens
 award tokens as immediately as possible
 use reinforcers such as praise along with
tokens
 keep accurate records of behaviors and
consequences
 provide bonuses for high-level
performance
 train those administering tokens
 incorporate methods to ensure accuracy
when self-reinforcing with tokens
 less pleasant activities might earn more
 those with less ability might earn more
 use more tokens on the first few days
 gradually thin schedules
 costs should relate to the number of
tokens that can be earned
 cost in tokens might reflect the actual
cost of items
 high-demand items might cost more
 offer lower cost for backups that have
therapeutic value
 exchange systems should take into
account intellectual and cognitive
abilities
in programs that target long-term change,
the token system should be phased out
 use natural reinforcers such as praise and
feedback with tokens
 fade the use of tokens
 increase the number of tokens required to
buy backups
 increase the delay between earning
tokens and redeeming them
Achievement Place was designed as a
residential token economy program for
juvenile boys classified "predelinquent"
 boys lived with other boys and a pair of
teaching parents and continued to go to their
own schools
 tokens were points earned or lost
 points were recorded on an index card
carried by each boy
 most backups were privileges and
consumables
 boys could bid to serve as manager and earn
points based on the performance of others
the program was designed to move boys
toward self-regulation; boys moved
through three phases:
 daily point system where points were
exchanged at the end of each day
 backups could be exchanged at the end of
each week
 a merit system where privileges were
taken freely as long as appropriate
behavior was maintained by social
reinforcers
 social structure of Achievement Place was
similar to a family (the teaching-family
model)
 daily routines were similar to those
established in most homes
 evening family conference used to discuss
the day's events
 effective in improving a wide variety of
behaviors while boys are in attendance
 short- and long-term improvements after
involvement in these programs does not
seem to be any better than other
programs
Birnbrauer and colleagues describe a
system for a special education classroom
 students earned tokens for correct
performance on:
 academic tasks
 cooperative behavior
 extra activities

 tokens were written marks

 backups were trinkets or special items
identified for individuals
Boegli and Wasik describe a schoolwide
program used with kindergartners through
sixth graders
 target behaviors included those related
to:
 academic work
 classroom conduct

 students had regular access to a store

 students also could use tokens to bid on
other objects in auctions
Nelton describes a system developed for
workers at a manufacturing plant
 target behaviors included:
 absenteeism
 discipline problems
 points were earned when:
 attendance was excellent
 no formal disciplinary actions were pending
 points were lost for absences
 points could earn a special jacket
Fox and colleagues describe a token
economy targeting miner safety
 miners earned trading stamps for not
having injuries
 group and individual contingencies were
applied
 stamps could be used to buy merchandise
like sporting goods and appliances
Ayllon and Azrin implemented an early
system in a psychiatric hospital
 target behaviors included:
 personal hygiene
 self-help skills

 tokens were coins

 backups were items available in a store
 backups also included opportunities to
engage in special activities
token economies are more effective than other
traditional treatments, but systems have not
been widely implemented; several factors
have made it a less preferred procedure:
 staff resist the approach
 high initial costs for staffing and reinforcers
 patients must learn and adapt to these
systems
 token economies are hard to monitor in
outpatient settings
 implementation has been restricted by legal
rulings and ethical concerns
 gains may be temporary, but new skills
are often gained
 costs often are high, but cost of
continuing a program is often justified by
economic benefits
 some characterize token economies as
demeaning, but participants in token
systems give them high marks
 The behavior contract is a simple positive-
reinforcement intervention that is widely
used by teachers to change student behavior.
The behavior contract spells out in detail the
expectations of student and teacher (and
sometimes parents) in carrying out the
intervention plan, making it a useful
planning document.
 Because the student usually has input into
the conditions that are established within
the contract for earning rewards, the student
is more likely to be motivated to abide by
the terms of the behavior contract than if
those terms had been imposed by someone
else
 Staff decides which specific behaviors to
select for the behavior contract. When
possible, staff should define behavior targets
for the contract in the form of positive, pro-
academic or pro-social behaviors.
 a listing of student behaviors that are to be reduced or
increased.
 The student's behavioral goals should usually be stated in
positive, goal-oriented terms.
 Also, behavioral definitions should be described in
sufficient detail to prevent disagreement about student
compliance.
 The teacher should also select target behaviors that are
easy to observe and verify.
 For instance completion of class assignments is a
behavioral goal that can be readily evaluated. If the
teacher selects the goal that a child "will not steal pens
from other students", though, this goal will be very
difficult to observe and confirm.
 a statement or section that explains the
minimum conditions under which the student
will earn a point, sticker, or other token for
showing appropriate behaviors.
 For example, a contract may state that
"Johnny will add a point to his Good Behavior
Chart each time he arrives at school on time
and hands in his completed homework
assignment to the teacher."
 the conditions under which the student will
be able to redeem collected stickers, points,
or other tokens to redeem for specific
rewards.
 A contract may state, for instance, that
"When Johnny has earned 5 points on his
Good Behavior Chart, he may select a friend,
choose a game from the play-materials shelf,
and spend 10 minutes during free time at the
end of the day playing the game."
 bonus and penalty clauses (optional).
 Although not required, bonus and penalty
clauses can provide extra incentives for the
student to follow the contract.
 A bonus clause usually offers the student
some type of additional 'pay-off' for
consistently reaching behavioral targets.
 A penalty clause may prescribe a penalty for
serious problem behaviors; e.g., the student
disrupts the class or endanger the safety of
self or of others.
 areas for signature
 The behavior contract should include spaces
for both teacher and student signatures, as a
sign that both parties agree to adhere to
their responsibilities in the contract.
 Additionally, the instructor may want to
include signature blocks for other staff
members
Fear and Anxiety Reduction
Procedures
Examples in book

 Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Speaking

 Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders
etc.
 A number of behavior modification
procedures are used to help people
overcome problems of fear or anxiety.
Fear: is a response to a real or perceived
immediate threat.

anxiety is the expectation of future

threat/feeling of uneasiness and worry.
Procedures are strategies that people use to
decrease the autonomic arousal that they
experience as a component of fear and anxiety
problems.
Like:
 progressive muscle relaxation,
 Diaphragmatic breathing/deep breathing
 Attention-focusing exercises
 Behavioral relaxation training
 Systematic desensitization
 In-vivo desensitization
 Flooding
progressive muscle relaxation (PMR),
the person systematically tenses and relaxes
each of the major muscle groups in the
body.
Progressive Muscle nie
l le
Da
Relaxationam, &
, S
o ke
ro
B
ll y,
Ke
“Once the body achieves a state
of neuromuscular homeostasis,
the mind will follow suit”
Edmund Jacobson
-PMR is a technique of stress management
developed by Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s.

-Initially, there was a series of 200 different muscle

relaxation exercises

-This technique was not practical because of lengthy

and painstaking sessions.
•More recently the system has been
abbreviated to 15-20 basic exercises

•Premise is the same, where the patients

learn to voluntarily relax certain muscles in
their body to reduce anxiety symptoms.
• PMR consists of a series of exercises that involve
contracting a muscle group, holding the contraction,
then relaxing.
• Contracting teaches an awareness to what muscle
tension feels like.
• Relaxing the muscle teaches the absence of tension
and how this can be voluntarily induced
-Promotes relaxation
-decreases levels of muscle tension (muscle
tension can occur when stressed, angry, nervous
etc.)
-increases overall awareness of muscle tension
-used to successfully intervene with physical
disorders such as:
*Insomnia
*Hypertension
*Headaches
*Lower Back Pain
 Additionally…
 This tecnique is effective in controlling muscular
tension associated with anger
 Studies suggest that it may be an effective way
to “kick the habit” of smoking
 Heart Rate
 Body Temperature
 Biofeedback
 Testimonials

II feel
feelzero
zero
muscular
musculartension!
tension!
 Find your radial (wrist) or carotid artery
(neck)
 Lightly press your index and middle finger
against artery
 Count the number of beats in 30 seconds
 Once this number is obtained, multiply by 2
in order to get BEATS/MINUTE
 Let’s do this!
 Concentric: Muscle shortens as it contracts
 Eccentric: Muscle lengthens as it contracts
 Isometric: Muscle does not change length as
it contracts
 Progressive muscular relaxation involves
isometric contractions.
-Face
-Face
-Jaw
-Jaw
-Neck
-Neck
Shoulders

Shoulders
Shoulders
-Upper
-Upper chest
chest
-Upper
-Upper arms
arms
••Hands
Hands and
and
forearms
forearms
abdominals
abdominals
-Lower
-Lower back
back
-Buttocks
-Buttocks
-Thighs
-Thighs
-Calves
-Calves
-Feet
-Feet
 Strong body awareness w/o internal self talk or
positive thoughts
 No attempt to expand consciousness
 Position:
 Sit in a comfortable position or lye down for best
results
 Arms by your side and palms facing up-
 Avoid constricting clothing and jewelry
 Breathing:
 Inhale as you contract your muscles and exhale
when you release the tension to allow for deeper
sense of relaxation.
 Minimize distractions-once you practice a lot you can do
it anywhere! Ex: sitting in traffic, standing in line, or
lying in bed.
 For best use do it three times a day for five minutes on
a regular basis
 Most effective way is 100%, 50%, and then 5%
contractions of five seconds each then the relaxation
phase.
 Start at the head and work to feet
 Change intensity of contraction phase
 Diaphragmatic breathing after each muscle group
 After a five minute set continue to sit or lye down for a
few minutes and “internalize all somatic sensations”
 Then focus on surroundings
 We will do thirteen muscle groups at 100%
contraction for 5 seconds each followed by a
30 second relaxation time before moving
onto the next muscle group.
 Notice any tension in each muscle group
before you contract and notice the lack of
tension as you relax.
 Only contract the selected
muscle group and relax the rest
of the body.
 Before sporting events
 Before tests, during tests
 ANY time you feel anxiety
 Once you’re familiar with the process you
can contract all muscle groups
simultaneously
 Once you are skilled with PMR technique, you
can achieve totally body relaxation in less
than 3 minutes.
 Why it is important ?
 What kind of technique it is?
 Is that a natural mechanism??
 It is simply what it says

 Breath in through your nose for about 10

seconds

 Breath out through your mouth for about 10

seconds
 Benefits Include:

STRESS RELIEF
 (Depression and anxiety too)
Helps your immune system
Possibly aids in weight loss
 Helps to cope better, and face a situation.
 Increases the problem solving pattern.
 Helpful to reduce pain.
 Increase the level to initiate any task.
 Helpful to divert a problematic situation.
 Increase self esteem and confidence.
 Sympathetic Nervous System – Fight

 Parasympathetic Nervous System – Relax

 During times of stress the Sympathetic

Nervous System is active
 Deep Breathing is a fast way to activate your
Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Deep Breathing brings in oxygen that all cells
need

 Deep Breathing pushes out excess carbon

dioxide
 “While this is not life threatening, it does tell me
that my patient is not inhaling enough oxygen or
exhaling enough carbon dioxide, which can have
consequences such as fatigue, mental fog and
decreased tissue function. I often note “needs to
breathe” on a patient’s chart. Not the shallow
chest breathing many of us default into, but deep,
meaningful breaths, or “belly breathing.””
 Marcelle Pick, OB/GYN NP
 Feet shoulder width anchored to the ground

 Arms relaxed at your sides

 Shoulders slightly forward and relaxed

 Head “above the clouds”

 Imagine your stomach is a small balloon

 Clear your mind

 Close your eyes and breathe in through your

nose for 10 seconds – Count in your head

 Breathe out for through your mouth for

10 seconds – Count in your head

 Repeat 5 Times
 How many of you feel better after
exercising?

 Effectiveness of any technique depends how you

do it???

 Everytechnique is effective to the level how you

practice it???
Attention-Focusing
Exercises
Attention focusing exercises produce
relaxation
by

directing attention to a neutral or pleasant

stimulus to remove the person’ attention from
the anxiety-producing stimulus.
 Meditation,
 Guided imagery
 Hypnosis
 In meditation, the person focuses attention
on a visual stimulus, an auditory stimulus, or a
kinesthetic stimulus.
e.g
 Once focused on the object, mantra, or
breathing during the meditation exercise, the
person’s attention cannot be focused on stimuli
that produce anxiety
 The person listens to an audiotape or to a
therapist who describes a scene or image.
 The person gets into a comfortable sitting or
lying position, with eyes closed, and imagines
the scene.
 The audiotape or the therapist describes sights,
sounds, and smells when creating the image.
 the scene fully displace any anxiety-provoking
thoughts or images.
 In hypnosis, the person focuses attention on
the hypnotic suggestions from the therapist or
from an audiotape.
 In the hypnotic trance, attention is simply
focused on the therapist’s words so that the
person is less aware of external stimuli,
including anxiety-provoking thoughts and
images.
 A person can practice self-hypnosis by reciting
hypnotic suggestions from a script to induce a
state of relaxation.
 Described by Poppen (1988), the person is
taught to relax each muscle group in the
body by assuming relaxed postures.

 This is similar to PMR, except that the person

does not tense and relax each muscle group.
 Systematic desensitization/ reciprocal
inhibition developed by Joseph Wolpe.
 the Person with a phobia practices relaxation
while imagining scenes of the fear-producing
stimulus.
 A phobia is a fear in which the level of

anxiety or escape and avoidance behavior is

severe enough to disrupt the person’s life.
Three important steps.

1. The client learns relaxation skills using one

of the procedures described earlier.

2.The therapist and client develop a

hierarchy of fear-producing stimuli.

3.The client practices the relaxation skills

while the therapist describes scenes from the
hierarchy.
Fear of leaving the house

10. Going out the front door to my car to go to the store.

20. Getting in the car and starting it up.
30. In the car and pulling out of the driveway.
40. On the street and pulling away from my house.
50. Two blocks from my house on way to the store.
60. Arrive at the store and park.
70. Enter the store.
80. Get a shopping cart and begin looking for items on my
list.
90. Have all the items and go to checkout counter.
100. Have all the items and have to wait in a long, slow line
to go through checkout.
 client gradually approaches or is gradually
exposed to the actual fear-producing stimulus

 To use the in vivo desensitization

 the client must first learn the relaxation
response. Next, the client and therapist must
develop a hierarchy of situations involving the
fear producing stimulus.

 theclient experiences each situation in the

hierarchy while maintaining relaxation as an
alternative response to replace the fear
response.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic
and In Vivo Desensitization??????????
 Flooding is a procedure in which the person
is exposed to the feared stimulus at full
intensity for a prolonged period.
 Initially, the person experiences heightened
anxiety in the presence of the feared
stimulus.
 but over time the level of anxiety decreases
through a process of respondent extinction.
 Flooding should be conducted only by a
professional.
 Modeling has been used as a successful
treatment for fears, especially in children.

 In the modeling procedure, the child observes

another person approaching the feared
stimulus or engaging in a feared activity.

 The person with the fear can observe a live

model/ a film or video model