UNIT - I

1.1 INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION:
 Surveying is defined as the art of making linear or angular
measurements to determine the relative positions of
objects on the surface of earth
 The measurements in the horizontal plane on a paper is
known as a plan or map
 The vertical plane measurements represented on a paper
is known as section or elevation
OBJECTIVES:
 The primary objectives of surveying is to prepare a plan or map
EARTH SURFACE ; SPHERICAL SHAPE
MAIN DIVISIONS OF
SURVEYING
 PLANE SURVEYING
 Curvature of earth surface is not considered

 Flat surface ASSUMPTIONS;

1. Survey area small ( less than 250sqkm)
 Small area 2. Line connecting any two point – straight
line
3. Angle between two points is plane angle
 Accuracy small 4. Plum at any point of survey is
perpendicular
 GEODETIC SURVEYING 5. Accuracy small

 Curvature of earth surface is considered

 Large area

 Accuracy more

 GTS : Great Trigonometrical survey dpt. of India

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
 BASED ON THE NATURE OF FIELD OF
SURVEYING
 Land surveying
 Topography survey ( Location of hills,
valley, river etc..)
 Cadastral survey ( Locate property
boundary)
 City survey ( location of buildings,
streets etc..)
 Engineering survey( Civil related
works)

 Marine / navigation surveying

( Survey near water body)
 Astronomical surveying ( latitude, longitude, azimuths, local
time)


 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

 BASED ON THE METHOD OF SURVEYING

 Triangulation survey

 Traverse survey

 BASED ON THE INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE SURVEY

 Chain survey
 Compass survey
 Plane table survey
 Leveling
 Theodalite survey
 Tachometric survey
 Aerial and photo graphic survey
 Hypsometric survey
 EDM
USES OF SURVEYING
 To know the relative positions and shapes of topography
 To establish the boundary line of property
 To find the areas of boundary
 To calculate the volumes of earth work
 To select the suitable site for engineering works
WORKS OF SURVEYOR
 Field work
 Office work
 Care and adjustments of instruments
PRINCIPLES OF
SURVEYING
 Location of a new point
 Working from whole to part
 Location of a new point:
 Linear measurements
 Angular measurements
 Both L & A
B B Other conditions:
1. Perpendicular straight line
C C 2. One angle and linear

A
A Using angles
Working from whole to part:
B 1. Huge area
2. Triangles or traverse
C

A
 Speedometer pedometer

odometer

Measuring wheel passometer

 1.2 CHAIN
SURVEYING

Definition:
 It is the simplest form of land surveying.
 Chain surveying is a method of surveying in which the area divided into
network of triangles and the lengths of sides of triangles are measured
with a chain or tape without use of an angle measuring instruments.
 Chaining – the process of measuring the distance with a chain or tape
 Chain triangulation
 WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLE:

A triangle whose angles are greater than 30°

and less than 120 ° called a well
C
conditioned
triangle.
A
B
PURPOSES:
 To obtain necessary data for the boundaries of the
land
 To find the area of the land
 To collect necessary data for preparing plan
 Re-establish the boundaries of an area
 Divide the land into number of units – sizes ( plots)
 Limitations: not suitable for large and crowd areas
 CHAIN SURVEYING
OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN CHAIN SURVEYING
 Ranging
 Chaining
 Offsetting
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR CHAIN SURVEYING
 Chain
 Tape
 Arrows
 Pegs
 Ranging rods
 Offset rods
 Plum bob
 Cross staff
 Hammer
 CHAIN TAP ARROWS PEGS
E

RANGING ROD PLUMB

CHAIN
 Metric chain / non metric chain
 Links 100 / 150 links
 Galvanized iron / steel wires 4 mm to 6mm diameter
 Links connected with rings
TYPES OF CHAIN
 Metric chain

 Non-metric chain
 Engineers chain – 100 feet / 100 link
 Günter's / surveyors chain – 66 feet
 Revenue chain – cadastral survey - 33 feet
 Steel band
Construction of a 20m chain / 30m chain
 20 m chain – 100 links
 Each links 0.2m length / 200 mm
 Tallies 1m /5m / 15m
 Unfolding a chain
 Folding a chain
 Reading a chain
TAPES
 Made from different material

 Types of tapes
 Linen tape or cloth
 Metallic ( five or six wires woven
along linen thread) – 2,5,10,20,30
 Steel tape
 Synthetic tape / Glass fibre
 Invar tape
TERMS USED IN CHAIN
SURVEYING

 Survey station ( Prominent point on a chain line at either

end) (Sym:Δ)

 Tie station / subsidiary station ( Stations selected any where on

the chain line to run tie line, check line etc) ( sym; )

 Survey line : line joining the main survey stations ( dash

dot)

 Base line : longest main survey line – run through middle line
 Check line : a line run to check accuracy
 Tie line : a line joining the tie or subsidiary stations
CONTD.
.
C
BRIDG
E
D

Survey
station b c
Tie
station
B ABCDE –
Survey line
a
AC – Base
line E
bc- tie line
Ea – Check
line

A
Ranging : Locating intermediate points in between the terminals
 Direct ranging B
 Eye judgment
A
 Ranging by line ranger
C
 In direct ranging
 Hills / valley

 Reciprocal ranging
 Random line ranging

A D
C B

C1

D1

B1
 Chaining
 Flatground
 Slopping ground
 Direct method
 Stepping method
 Indirect method
 Angle measurement
 Application of hypotenuse allowance
 Measuring different elevation
CHAINING ON LEVEL
GROUND
 Chaining on level ground
 It involves following operations
 Fixing the stations.

 Unfolding the chain.

 Ranging. LAND
 Measuring the distance.

 Folding the chain.

CHAIN SURVEYING
(“STEPPING”)

a
w
b
x c
y
z
Offset :
Define: The lateral measurements taken to the left or right of a
surveyline to locate the details such as
buildings,

boundaries, fences and road.

Types:
 Oblique offset ( offset taken at an angle
other than 90º to a survey line)
 Length and angle
 Length
 Angle

 Perpendicular offset
By eye 

 By swinging tape
 By instrument ( cross staff)
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR
OFFSET
 Types of cross staff
 open cross staff ( wooden block 150mm square, round
or octagonal, 38mm deep, height – 1.2m to 1.5m)
 French cross staff ( octagonal brass tube , 100mm wide
and 150mm deep, with vertical slits) use 45º angle
multiples
 Adjustable cross staff (two bras cylinders of same dia
placed one over the another, lower degree and minutes)
 Optical square: optical square contained circular box
50mm dia and 12.5mm length with metal box – use to
perpendicular offset

Field works
 Field work
 Field book
 Conventional signs

 Chain triangulation
FIELD MAP
TYPES OF CROSS
STAFF
Open cross staff
OPTICAL
SQUARE
FIELD BOOK
CONVENTIONAL SIGN
CHAIN TRIANGULATION
 CHAIN
SOURCES
 Instrumental error( due to imperfect or faulty
adjustments of instruments used for measurements) –
removal of rings or links
 Personal errors ( due do want of perfection in observation)
 Natural errors - temperature, rain , atmospheres
TYPES
 Mistakes
 Cumulative errors / systematic errors
( same direction and which finally tend to accumulate)
( +/-)
 Positive errors: chain length shorter, slope or sag are

not considered, measurement taken

wrong)
 Negative errors: rings open, applied pull, temperature,
elongation of links
 Compensating errors ( errors which
MISTAKES
:
 Displacement of arrows
 Miscounting number of chains
 Misreading
 Erroneous recording ( number, calling, booking)
 Failure to observe the position of the zero point of
the tape
 Adding or omitting a full chain or tape
 Reading from the wrong end of chain
OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING
 Obstacles prevent direct measurement of
distance between the points.
 Hence it is called as indirect
measurement.
 TYPES OF OBSTACLES
 Obstacles to vision or ranging
 Obstacles to chaining

 Obstacles to both ranging and chaining

OBSTACLES TO VISION OR RANGING
 This obstacles obstruct ranging, but can
be chained in the line.
 Raising ground, intervening hill and wooded
forest.
 Case 1: Ends of the line are visible
 Case 2: Ends of the line are not visible from
midpoint
INTERVENING HILLS

RAISING GROUND

WOODED FOREST
OBSTACLES TO CHAINING
 This obstacles obstruct direct chaining –
but execute ranging work
 Pond, lake, river or hedge.
 Case 1: chaining around obstacles are possible
– pond ( equal perpendicular, Hypotense, )
 Case 2: chaining around obstacles are not
possible
PO
ND

LAKE
RIVER

WOODED
FOREST
HEDGE
OBSTACLES TO BOTH CHAINGING AND RANGING

 This obstacles obstruct ranging and

chaining
 Tall buildings
TALL BUILDINGS
Common errors
 Erroneous length of chain
 Bad ranging of chain length
 Careless holding of chain
 Bad stretching
 Non- horizontally
 Sagging
 Change in temperature
 Change in pull

 Testing a chain
 Chain corrections (- )negative error ( measured length
short ; use positive correction)
 (+) positive error ( measured length greater ; use
negative correction)
CHAIN CORRECTION : standardization and slope
Expression for correction factor
Actual Length ( l1 ) = (Incorrect length of chain / designated length) x
Measured length
 TAPE CORRECTIONS

 Correction for standardization

 Correction for slope

 Correction for temperature

 Correction for pull

 Correction for sag