STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 1:Introduction
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Autumn semester, 2018
Office hours: Lab: Monday 4-5
Theory: Tuesday 4-6.

General objective: understanding of the principles of crustal deformation, kinematics,

.stress and strain, and the construction of the geological tools used in structural analysis

:Specific objectives
.understanding of stress, strain, and their interaction at all scales )1
interpretation of geological maps, generation of structure cross-sections, and )2
.deciphering of tectonic histories
.identification of specific geologic structures and their origins )3

:Evaluation: Grading will consist

Mid Term Exam : ……………………25%
Laboratory ,Attendance, Assignment: ……………… 25%
Final Exam……………….. 50%
• Mid Term Exam : after 5 weeks
• Final Exam: after 10 weeks
Text book
.Billings M, 1972 Structural geology, third edition
.Twiss R, and Moores, 2007 Structural geology, second edition

Laboratory
.G. M. Bennison An introduction to geological structures and maps. third edition
Ragan M, (2009) Structural geology An Introduction to Geometrical techniques, fourth
.edition

Web resources:
http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/RWA/GS_326/GEOL326.html this
has lots of things, including lecture notes that are very comprehensive and
animations of faulting and folding
http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Geology/Structure_Resources/ a
site that lists numerous other structural geology webpages other websites
are listed in the online lecture notes
http://reynolds.asu.edu/ this has large numbers of visualization animations for
structures, topography and dipping layers
Lecture Outline

1-Introduction
2-Descriptive analysis
3- Kinematic analysis
4-Dynamic analysis
5-Fundamental Structures
A- Primary structures, Mud cracks, stratification, gradded bedding etc.
B-Secondary Structures: faults, joints, shear fractures, veins, dikes
folds, foliations, cleavages, lineations
Introduction:

1. Structural Geology: deals with rock deformation,

which is expressed by the development of geologic
structures such as faults and folds.

1. The structural geologist is concerned with three

major problems, (a)- What is the structure?,
(b)-How did it form?, and (c)-under what physical
conditions did it form?.
Descriptive analysis:
1. We use maps, cross sections, field photos, drill data, seismic profiles, gravity
data, etc., to describe the geometry of geologic structures.

Kinematic analysis:
1. We analyze and reconstruction the sense and magnitude, and sequence of
deformation for the development of individual structures and structural
systems.
2. We use allied fields such as sedimentology, thermo chronology, quantitative
metamorphic petrology to deduce the kinematics of faulting.

Dynamic analysis:
1. Once the kinematic models (could be multiple) are decided, we explore the
mechanical conditions that are suitable for the formation of the structures.
2. Two approaches are taken: (a) numerical Computation, coupling energy,
force, and mass balance equations, and (b) analogue models using materials
appropriate for earth’s conditions.
 Tectonics and Structural geology

Tectonics : Study of the origin and geologic evolution

(history of motion and deformation) of large areas
(regional to global) of the Earth’s lithosphere (e.g.,
origin of continents; building of mountain belts;
formation of ocean floor)

Structural Geology: Study of deformation in rocks at

scales ranging from submicroscopic to regional (micro-,
meso-, and macro-scale)
Fundamental Structures
• Primary structures (Nontectonic structures) = formed during the
original deposition of the rock.
• Secondary structures occurs after lithification; main study of structural
geology.

Stratification Cross Mud Ripple

bedded cracks mark
• stratification (bedding) = layering parallel to
the surface of deposition. "Lamination" =
layering with thickness < 1 cm.

• cross-stratification (cross-bedding) = two or

more sets of stratification with different
attitudes.
• graded bedding = variation in grain size from
bottom to top of bed.
• "Normal" grading is that in which the coarsest
grains are at the base. It is due to the more rapid
settling of coarse grains as a result of their relatively
low surface-area/volume ratio.
• "Reverse" grading is not a common feature, but it
may be produced in a number of environments:
• (i) on beaches, due to the sieving effect when
beach-sands are reworked by waves.
• (ii) in fluviatile environments, as a result of the
gradual speeding up of a sediment- charged
current of water.
• (a) Ripples. Ripples may be symmetric or asymmetric
ripples, depending upon the current scheme that generated
them, but are difficult to use as facing criteria.
• (b) Mudcracks. Mudcracks are cracks produced by
shrinkage during drying, when unconsolidated mud is exposed
to the air. They may be preserved when the mud is then covered
by a new depositional unit. They are a useful facing criterion.
 PRIMARY IGNEOUS FEATURES
• (a) Lava flows Lava flows are tabular to lensoid in form,
depending on their viscosity, and on the configuration of the
substrate onto which they are extruded; i.e., they may fill
valleys.
 Small-scale features
• (b) Ropy lava (pahöehöe). Ropy lavas have smooth, generally glassy surfaces which are
thrown into folds and wrinkles by the moving lava underneath them.
• (c) Pillow lavas = lavas with the morphology of pillows. They
are generally regarded as forming only underwater, where
the efficient chilling characteristics of water produce a strong
chilled margin to the still molten flow.
• (d) Columnar jointing = regularly distributed prismatic
jointing which allows the rock to be broken out into columns.
 Nontectonic structures

unconformities
a contact between sedimentary formations that represents a gap
in the geologic record -- “gap” represented is variable (i.e. amount of time or
the amount of missing section)
different types of unconformities

conformity

relatively continuous deposition •

deposition of a sequence of parallel layers •
contacts between formations do not represent significant amounts •
of time
conformity

from: http://www.elohi.com/photo/grandcanyon
Dating of structural events
different types of unconformities

angular unconformity

contact separates overlying younger layers from tilted older layers •

sequence of layers •
is not parallel
contacts between formations •
may represent significant
amounts of time

angular unconformity
angular unconformity
Dating of structural events
different types of unconformities

nonconformity

strata deposited on older crystalline (metamorphic/igneous) rock •

erosion surface on igneous/metamorphic rock covered by •

sedimentary rocks

large gap in •
geologic record

nonconformity
.There is an unconformity
?Where is it
?What type is it
• Secondary structures = occurs after lithification; main study of
structural geology

Stratification Cross Mud Ripple

bedded cracks mark
Secondary Structures
• Divided into:
– Brittle: faults, joints, shear fractures, veins, dikes

– Ductile: folds, foliations, cleavages, lineations

• Secondary structures = Faults, Joints, Folds .... We will study these
secondary geologic structures in details in this course