Environmental Engineering

WATER TREATMENT
Overview of the water treatment processes
Water treatment processes involve a series of steps aimed at removing impurities,
contaminants, and undesirable substances from water to make it safe, clean, and
suitable for various purposes.

Treatment of surface waters mostly requires the removal of particulate matter

and pathogens.

Removing particles also assists in pathogen removal, because most pathogens

either are particles or are associated with particles.
The typical unit
processes used for
the treatment of
surface water and
brackish waters are
shown in Figure.
Table summarizes the unit processes associated with significant removal of water constituents.
Treatment Systems
Various water treatment systems employ specific processes and technologies
to meet quality goals.
A combination of processes is often used to meet specific water quality
objectives.
Choosing the right system depends on factors like source water quality,
desired standards, usage, and operational needs.
Filtration Systems:
Remove suspended solids, particles, and impurities from water with various
filtration processes.
Methods include sand filtration, membrane filtration, etc.
Coagulation and flocculation are common pretreatment steps in filtration systems.
Applied in drinking water treatment, industrial water treatment, and wastewater
treatment.
Treatment Systems (Continue…
Disinfection Systems:
Kill or inactivate pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, protozoa)
present in water.
Chlorination, UV irradiation, ozonation, chemical disinfection (chlorine
dioxide, bromine, iodine).
Drinking water treatment, recreational water treatment, wastewater treatment.

Water Softening Systems:

Reduce water hardness by removing calcium and magnesium ions.
Ion exchange (cation exchange resin), lime-soda softening, membrane
softening.
Residential water softening, industrial boiler feed water treatment, preventing
scale buildup in appliances and equipment.
Treatment Systems (Continue…
Desalination Systems:
Remove dissolved salts and minerals from brackish water or seawater to
produce freshwater.
Reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, thermal distillation (multi-stage flash
distillation, multi-effect distillation).
Drinking water supply in coastal regions, agricultural irrigation, industrial
processes.

Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs):

Destroy organic pollutants, trace contaminants, and emerging
contaminants.
Ozone oxidation, UV/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) oxidation, advanced
oxidation/reduction processes (AOP/ARPs).
 Drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, groundwater remediation.
Treatment Systems (Continue…
Ion Exchange Systems:
Remove specific ions from water through ion exchange processes.
Cation exchange, anion exchange, mixed bed ion exchange.
Water softening, demineralization, selective removal of specific contaminants.

These systems employ specific processes and technologies to achieve water

quality goals.
The selection depends on factors such as the quality of the source water,
desired water quality standards, intended water use, and operational
considerations.
 o Plants employing simple chlorination are usually groundwater sources
that have a high-water quality and chlorinate to ensure that the water
reaching customers contains safe bacteria levels.
o A groundwater source can contain naturally occurring contaminants such
as arsenic, fluoride, radionuclides, iron, or manganese.
o In this case the water may be treated by adsorption, ion-exchange or
precipitation processes to remove the contaminant.
o Groundwaters can also be contaminated by spills caused by humans.
Spills from gasoline storage, degreasers, and dry cleaners are the most
common. These contaminants are generally removed by aeration, because
many of the contaminants are volatile, or by adsorption.
Generally, a filtration plant is used to treat surface water and when
necessary, a softening plant is used to treat groundwater.
In a filtration plant, rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfectionare employed to remove color, turbidity, taste and odors, organic matter,
and bacteria.

Additional operations may include bar racks or coarse screens if floating debris
and fish are a problem.
The raw (untreated) surface water enters the plant via low-lift pumps or gravity.
Usually, screening has taken place prior to pumping.
During mixing, chemicals called coagulants are added and rapidly dispersed
through the water. The chemical reacts with the desired impurities and forms
precipitates ( flocs) that are slowly brought into contact with one another during
flocculation.
The objective of flocculation is to allow the flocs to collide and “grow” to a settleable size. The
particles are removed by gravity (sedimentation).
This is done to minimize the number of solids that are applied to the filters.
 Filtration plant
In a filtration plant, processes like rapid mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection are used to eliminate color,
turbidity, taste, odors, organic matter, and bacteria from water.
Additional operations may involve bar racks or coarse screens to manage
floating debris and fish.
Untreated surface water enters the plant through low-lift pumps or gravity,
usually after screening.
Coagulants are added during mixing to react with impurities, forming
flocs that settle during flocculation.
Flocculation aims to increase floc size for easier removal via gravity
(sedimentation), reducing solids applied to filters.
Direct Filtration
In treatment plants with high-quality raw water, sedimentation and
flocculation may be skipped, known as direct filtration.
Filtration, the final step, involves passing water through sand or similar
media to remove fine particles.
Disinfection involves adding chemicals, typically chlorine, to kill or reduce
pathogens.
Storage, either at the plant or within the community, accommodates peak
demands and ensures a consistent schedule.
Residuals, including precipitated chemicals and suspended material, are
removed from sedimentation basins and filters and must be disposed of
correctly.
 Coagulation and Flocculation
The most common method used to remove particles and a portion of dissolved organic
matter is a combination of coagulation and flocculation followed by sedimentation
and/or filtration.

Coagulation is a charge neutralization step that involves the conditioning of the

suspended, colloidal, and dissolved matter by adding coagulants.

 Flocculation involves the aggregation of destabilized particles and formation of

larger particles known as floc.
 PARTICLE STABILITY AND REMOVAL
Surface charge is the primary contribution to particle stability.
Stable particles are likely to remain suspended in solution (and
measured as turbidity or TSS).
Suspended colloids and fine particles are relatively stable and cannot
flocculate and settle in a reasonable period of time.
The stability of particles in natural waters primarily depends on a
balance of the repulsive and attractive forces between particles.
Most particles in natural waters are negatively charged, and a repulsive
electrostatic force exists between particles of the same charge.
Counteracting these repulsive forces are attractive forces between
particles, known as van der Waals forces.
The potential energy from the combined repulsive electrostatic force and
attractive van der Waals forces is related to the distance between two
particles.
Because the net attractive force is very weak at long distances,
flocculation usually will not occur.
At very short distances, an energy barrier exists, and the kinetic energy
arising from Brownian motion of particles is not high enough to
overcome the energy barrier.
After a coagulant is added, the repulsive forces are reduced, particles
will come together, and rapid flocculation can occur.
 Coagulation
The purpose of coagulation is to alter the colloids so that they can adhere to each other.
During coagulation, a positive ion is added to water to reduce the surface charge to the
point where the colloids are not repelled from each other.
A coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to accomplish
coagulation.
There are three key properties of a coagulant:
1. Trivalent cation. the colloids most found in natural waters are negatively charged,
hence a cation is required to neutralize the charge. A trivalent cation is the most
efficient cation.
2. Nontoxic. This requirement is obvious to produce a safe water.
3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range. The coagulant that is added must precipitate out
of solution so that high concentrations of the ion are not left in the water. Such
precipitation
The two most greatly assists theare
used coagulants colloid removal
aluminum Alprocess.
3+
and ferric iron Fe3+. Both meet the
above three requirements.
 CHEMICAL COAGULANTS
A coagulant is the chemical that is added to destabilize particles and
accomplish coagulation. Selection of the proper coagulant depends
upon:
1) The characteristics of the coagulant,
2) Concentration and type of particulates,
3) Concentration and characteristics of NOM (Natural Organic
Matter)
4) Water temperature,
5) Water quality (for example, pH),
6) Cost and availability, and
7) Dewatering characteristics of the solids that are produced.
Natural coagulants are being promoted in many parts of the world because they are
considered renewable, they can be used as food and fuel, and their production relies on
local materials and labor.
 Coagulant/Flocculant Aids
Coagulant and flocculant aids are substances that enhance the coagulation
and flocculation processes.
Coagulant aids are typically insoluble particulate materials, such as clay,
diatomite, powdered activated carbon (PAC), or fine sand, that form
nucleating sites for the formation of larger flocs. They are used in
conjunction with the primary coagulants.
Flocculant aids such as anionic and nonionic polymers are used to
strengthen flocs. They are added after the addition of coagulants and the
destabilization of the particles
Coagulant aids are used due to the following reasons:
• Improve coagulation, Reduce primary coagulant dose, Overcome cool
water temperature, Strengthen flocs, Reduce sludge production.
 Coagulant Aids
The four basic types of coagulant aids are
1. pH adjusters,
2. Activated silica,
3. Clay, and
4. Polymers.
Acids and alkalis are both used to adjust the pH of the water
into the optimal range for coagulation.
◦ The acid most used for lowering the pH is sulfuric acid.
◦ lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash (Na2CO3) are used to raise the pH.
Activated Silica:
When activated silica is added to water, it produces a stable solution that
has a negative surface charge.
The activated silica can unite with the positively charged aluminum or with
iron flocs, resulting in a larger, denser floc that settles faster and enhances
enmeshment.
•The addition of activated silica is especially useful for treating highly
colored, low-turbidity waters because it adds weight to the floc.
•Activated silica strengthen flocs, increase coagulation rate, reduces
coagulant dose, Widen pH range and improved color removal.
•Activation of silica (Na2SiO3+HOCL) does require proper equipment
and close operational control, and many plants are hesitant to use it.
Clay :
Clays can act much like activated silica in that they have a slight negative
charge and can add weight to the flocs. Clays are also most useful for colored,
low-turbidity waters, but are rarely used.

Polymers:
Polymers can have a negative charge (anionic), positive charge (cationic),
positive and negative charge (poly amphotype), or no charge (nonionic).
Polymers are long chained carbon compounds of high molecular weight that have
many active sites.
The active sites adhere to flocs, joining them together and producing a larger,
tougher floc that settles better. This process is called interparticle bridging.
The type of polymer, dose, and point of addition must be determined for each water,
and requirements may change within a plant on a seasonal, or even daily, basis.
Coagulant addition (Alum/Ferrous sulphate)
The most used coagulant is aluminum sulphate, commonly referred to as
alum (molecular weight of 594 g/mole).
 Addition of Al3+ in the form of alum (or Fe3+ in the form of the iron salts
such as ferrous sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3 or ferric chloride, FeCl3) at
concentrations greater than their solubility limits results in the formation of
the hydroxide precipitate that is typically used in the sweep floc mode of
operation (act as sweeping agent).
The overall stoichiometric reaction for addition of alum in the formation of
a hydroxide precipitate is as follows:
Alkalinity (expressed as HCO3- ) is consumed with the addition of alum. This
is because alum and the other iron salts are weak acids.
Based on stoichiometry, 1 mg/L of alum will consume approximately
0.50 mg/L of alkalinity (as CaCO3).
If the natural alkalinity of the water is not sufficient, it may be
necessary to add lime or soda ash (Na2CO3) to react with the alum to
maintain the pH in the appropriate range. The pH range for operating
region of alum is 5.5–7.7, and for iron salts is 5–8.5
 Jar Testing
Jar testing is widely used for screening the type of coagulant and the proper
coagulant dosage.

•It consists of six square batch reactors, each equipped with a paddle mixer that can
turn at variable speeds. In a jar test, batch additions of various types and different
dosages of coagulants are added to the water sample.

•A rapid-mixing stage is combined with the addition of the coagulant. This stage is
followed by a slow-mixing stage to enhance floc formation.

•The samples are then allowed to settle under undisturbed conditions, and the turbidity
of the settled supernatant is measured and plotted as a function of coagulant dose in
order to determine the proper coagulant dosage.
Other Considerations
Rapid Mixing:
Coagulants are dispersed into the water stream via rapid-mixing systems:
1) Pumped mixing (for example, pumped flash mixing, which can be simple and
reliable);
2) Hydraulic methods (for example, in-line static mixer, which is simple,
reliable, and nonmechanical); and
3) Mechanical mixing (conventional stirred tanks being the most common).
Flocculation Systems
Differential sedimentation and Brownian motion are the two major
mechanisms for particle aggregation.

The gentle mixing of the water is the key for proper flocculation.

To assist particle aggregation, mechanical mixing is typically

employed to maintain the particles in suspension.
Flocculation systems can be divided into
two groups:
1) Mechanical flocculators (vertical-shaft turbine, horizontal-
shaft paddle) and
2) Hydraulic flocculators.
To Do
Do Example 6.1, 6.3, 6.5 and 6.6 from Introduction to
environmental engineering Mackenzie L.Davis and David A.
Cornwell