OVERVIEW OF C

CHAPTER 2
OUTLINE
 History of C
C Language Elements
 Data Types and Variable Declarations
 Executable Statements
 Input and Output Functions
 General form of a C program
 Arithmetic Expressions
 Formatting Numbers in Program Output
HISTORY OF C
C was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at
AT&T Bell Laboratories.
Cwas designed as a programming language to
write the Unix Operating System.
C became the most commonly used language
for writing system software.
C is machine independent: C programs can be
compiled to run on a wide variety of processors
and operating systems.
WHY LEARN C?
 Many companies and software projects do their
programming in C.
 Looks good on your resume.
 Small, compact size code.
 Produces optimized programs that run fast.
 Low-level access to computer memory via pointers.
 Can be compiled to run on a variety of computers.
C LANGUAGE ELEMENTS IN
MILES-TO-KILOMETERS CONVERSION
PROGRAM
PROGRAM IN MEMORY: BEFORE (A)
AND AFTER EXECUTION OF A
PROGRAM (B)
PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES
 Preprocessor directives are commands that give
instructions to the C preprocessor.
 The preprocessor modifies a C program prior to
its compilation.
 Preprocessor directives begin with #

#include <stdio.h>
 Include Standard I/O Library header file (.h file)

#include <math.h>
 Include Standard Math Library header file (.h file)

#define PI 3.141593
 Define the constant PI
#INCLUDE DIRECTIVE
 #include directive is used to include other
source files into your source file.
 The #include directive gives a program access
to a standard library.
 StandardLibraries contains useful functions and
symbols that are predefined by the C language.
 You must include <stdio.h> if you want to use the
printf and scanf library functions.
 stdio.h is called a header file (.h file). It contains
information about standard input and output functions
that are inserted into your program before compilation.
#DEFINE DIRECTIVE
 The #define directive instructs the preprocessor
to replace each occurrence of a text by a particular
constant value before compilation.
 #define replaces all occurrences of the text you
specify with the constant value you specify
#define NAME value
#define KMS_PER_MILES 1.609
#define PI 3.141593
THE main FUNCTION
 int main(void) marks the beginning of the main
function where program execution begins.
 Every C program has a main function.
 Braces { and } mark the beginning and end of the body of
function main.
 A function body has two parts:
 Declarations - tell the compiler what memory cells are
needed in the function
 Executable statements - (derived from the algorithm)
are translated into machine language and later
executed by the computer
RESERVED WORDS
A word that has special meaning to C and can not be
used for other purposes.
 These are words that C reserves for its own uses
 Built-in Types: int, double, char, void, etc.
 Control flow: if, else, for, while, return, etc.
 Always lower case
STANDARD IDENTIFIERS
 Identifier - A name given to a variable or a function
 Standard Identifier - An identifier defined in a
standard C library and has special meaning in C.
 Examples: printf, scanf
 Standard identifiers are not reserved words

 You can redefine standard identifiers if you want to, but it

is not recommended.
 For example, if you define your own function printf,

then you cannot use the C library function printf.

USER-DEFINED IDENTIFIERS
 We choose our own identifiers to
 Name memory cells that will hold data and program results
 Name functions that we define
 Rules for Naming Identifiers:
 An identifier consists only of letters, digits, and underscores
 An identifier cannot begin with a digit
 A C reserved word cannot be used as an identifier
 A standard C identifier should not be redefined
 Examples of Valid identifiers:
 letter1, inches, KM_PER_MILE
 Examples of Invalid identifiers:
 1letter, Happy$trout, return
GUIDELINES FOR NAMING IDENTIFIERS
 Uppercase and lowercase are different
 LETTER , Letter, letter are different identifiers
 Avoid names that only differ by case. They can lead to
problems of finding bugs (errors) in the program.
 Choose meaningful identifiers (easy to understand)
 Example: distance = rate * time
 Means a lot more than z = x * y
 Choose #define constants to be ALL UPPERCASE
 Example: KMS_PER_MILE is a defined constant
 As a variable, we can probably name it:

KmsPerMile or Kms_Per_Mile
NEXT . . .
 History of C
C Language Elements
 Data Types and Variable Declarations
 Executable Statements
 Input and Output Functions
 General form of a C program
 Arithmetic Expressions
 Formatting Numbers in Program Output
DATA TYPES
 Data Types: a set of values and a set of operations
that can be performed on those values
 int: Stores signed integer values: whole numbers
 Examples: 65, -12345
 double: Stores real numbers that use a decimal point
 Examples: 3.14159 or 1.23e5 (which equals 123000.0)
 char: Stores character values
 Each char value is enclosed in single quotes: 'A', '*'
 Can be a letter, digit, or special character symbol
 Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, /) and compare can be
performed on int and double variables. Compare
operations can be performed on char variables.
INTEGER AND FLOATING-POINT DATA TYPES
 Integer Types in C
Type Size in Memory Range
short 2 bytes = 16 bits -32768 to +32767
unsigned short 2 bytes = 16 bits 0 to 65535
int 4 bytes = 32 bits -2147483648 to +2147483647
unsigned int 4 bytes = 32 bits 0 to 4294967295
long 4 bytes = 32 bits Same as int
long long 8 bytes = 64 bits -9×1018 to +9×1018

 Floating-Point Types in C
Type Size in Memory Approximate Range Significant Digits
float 4 bytes = 32 bits 10-38 to 10+38 6
double 8 bytes = 64 bits 10-308 to 10+308 15
CHARACTERS AND ASCII CODE
 Character Type in C
Type Size in Memory ASCII Codes
char 1 byte = 8 bits 0 to 255

 ASCII Codes and Special Characters

Character ASCII Code Special Characters Meaning
'0' 48 ' ' Space Character
'9' 57 '*' Star Character
'A' 65 '\n' Newline
'B' 66 '\t' Horizontal Tab
'Z' 90 '\'' Single Quote
'a' 97 '\"' Double Quote
'b' 98 '\\' Backslash
'z' 122 '\0' NULL Character
 VARIABLE DECLARATIONS
 Variables:
The memory cells used for storing a
program’s input data and its computational results
 The Value of a Variable can change at runtime

 Variabledeclarations: Statements that communicate

to the compiler the names of variables in the program
and the type of data they can store.
 Examples:

double miles, kms;

int count;
char answer;
 C requires that you declare every variable in the program.
EXECUTABLE STATEMENTS
 ExecutableStatements: C statements used to write
or code the algorithm. C compiler translates the
executable statements to machine code.
 Examples of executable Statements:
 Assignment Statements

 Function Calls, such as calling printf and scanf

 return statement

 if and switch statements (selection) - later

 for and while statements (iteration) - later

 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT
 Stores a value or a computational result in a variable

variable = expression;

= is the Assignment Operator

 The assignment statement computes the expression

that appears after the assignment operator and stores
its value in the variable that appears to the left.
 EFFECT OF
kms = KMS_PER_MILE * miles

The value assigned to kms is the result of multiplying

the constant KMS_PER_MILE by the variable miles.
 EFFECT OF:
sum = sum + item
Read = as sum item
Before
"becomes" assignment 90 20

The assignment operator +

does NOT mean equality
sum
After
110
assignment
INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
 Inputoperation: data transfer from the outside
world into computer memory
 Output operation: program results can be displayed
to the program user
 Input/Output functions: special program units that
do all input/output operations
 printf : output function

 scanf : input function

 Function call: used to call or activate a function

 Asking another piece of code to do some work for you
THE printf FUNCTION
function function arguments
name

printf("That equals %f kilometers.\n", kms);

format place holder print

string list

That equals 16.0900000 kilometers.

PLACEHOLDERS
 Placeholders always begin with the symbol %
 % marks the place in a format string where a value will be

printed out or will be read

 Format strings can have multiple placeholders, if you
are printing multiple values
Placeholder Variable Type Function Use
%c char printf / scanf
%d int printf / scanf
%f double printf
%lf double scanf
DISPLAYING PROMPTS
 When input data is needed in an interactive program,
you should use the printf function to display a
prompting message, or prompt, that tells the user
what data to enter.

printf("Enter the distance in miles> ");

printf("Enter the object mass in grams> ");
THE scanf FUNCTION
function Number
name function arguments Entered 30.5
miles
scanf("%lf", &miles);
30.5
place holders input variables

 The& is the address operator. It tells scanf the

address of variable miles in memory.
 When user inputs a value, it is stored in miles.
 Theplaceholder %lf tells scanf the type of
data to store into variable miles.
READING THREE LETTERS
char letter1, letter2, letter3;

scanf("%c%c%c", Letters
C a r
Entered
&letter1, letter1
C
&letter2,
letter2

&letter3); a
letter3

r
RETURN STATEMENT
 Syntax: return expression ;
 Example: return (0);
 Returningfrom the main function terminates the
program and transfers control back to the
operating system. Value returned is 0.
 Thereturn statement transfers control from a
function back to the caller.
 Once you start writing your own functions, you
will use the return statement to return the
result of a function back to the caller.
NEXT . . .
 History of C
C Language Elements
 Data Types and Variable Declarations
 Executable Statements
 Input and Output Functions
 General form of a C program
 Arithmetic Expressions
 Formatting Numbers in Program Output
GENERAL FORM OF A C PROGRAM
 Preprocessordirectives
modify the text of a C
program before compilation.
 Everyvariable has to be
declared before using it.

 Executable
statements are translated into machine
language and eventually executed.
 Executablestatements perform computations on
the declared variables or input/output operations.
COMMENTS
 Comments making it easier for us to understand the program,
but are ignored by the C compiler.
 Two forms of comments:
 /* C comment */ anything between /* and */ is
considered a comment, even if it spans on multiple lines.
 // C++ comment anything after // is considered a
comment until the end of the line.
 Comments are used to create Program Documentation
 Help others read and understand the program.
 The start of the program should consist of a comment that
includes programmer’s name, date, current version, and a
brief description of what the program does.
 Always Comment your Code!
PROGRAMMING STYLE
 Why we need to follow conventions?
 A program that looks good is easier to read and

understand than one that is sloppy.

 80% of the cost of software goes to maintenance.

 Hardly any software is maintained for its whole lifetime

by the original author.

 Programs that follow the typical conventions are more

readable and allow engineers to understand the code

more quickly and thoroughly.
 Checkyour text book and expert programmers on
how to improve your programming style.
WHITE SPACES
 The compiler ignores extra blanks between
words and symbols, but you may insert space to
improve the readability and style of a program.
 You should always leave a blank space after a
comma and before and after operators such as:
+ − * / and =
 You should indent the lines of code in the body
of a function.
WHITE SPACE EXAMPLE
Bad: Good:
int main(void) int main(void)
{ int foo,blah; {
scanf("%d",&foo); int foo, blah;
blah=foo+1; scanf("%d", &foo);
printf("%d", blah); blah = foo + 1;
return 0;} printf("%d", blah);
return 0;
}
BAD PROGRAMMING
PRACTICES
 Missing statement of purpose
 Inadequate commenting
 Variables names are not meaningful
 Use of unnamed constant
 Indentation does not represent program structure
 Algorithm is inefficient or difficult to follow
 Program does not compile
 Program produces incorrect results
 Insufficient testing (test case results are different than
expected, program is not fully tested for all cases)
ARITHMETIC EXPRESSIONS
 Tosolve most programming problems, you need to
write arithmetic expressions that compute data of
type int and double (and sometimes char)
 Arithmeticexpressions contain variables, constants,
function calls, arithmetic operators, as well as sub-
expressions written within parentheses.
 Examples:

 sum + 1
 (a + b) * (c – d)
 (-b + sqrt(delta))/(2.0 * a)
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Operator Meaning Examples
5 + 2 is 7
+ addition 5.0 + 2.0 is 7.0
'B' + 1 is 'C'
5 – 2 is 3
– subtraction 5.0 – 2.0 is 3.0
'B' – 1 is 'A'
5 * 2 is 10
* multiplication
5.0 * 2.0 is 10.0
5 / 2 is 2
/ division
5.0 / 2.0 is 2.5
% remainder 5 % 2 is 1
OPERATORS / AND %
Example Result Explanation
8 / 5 1 Integer operands  integer result
8.0/5.0 1.6 floating-point operands and result
8 /-5 -1 One operand is negative  negative result
-8 /-5 1 Both operands are negative  positive result
8 % 5 3 Integer remainder of dividing 8 by 5
8 %-5 3 Positive dividend  positive remainder
-8 % 5 -3 Negative dividend  Negative remainder

 (m/n)*n + (m%n) is always equal to m

/ and % are undefined when the divisor is 0.
DATA TYPE OF AN EXPRESSION
 What is the type of expression x+y when x and y are
both of type int? (answer: type of x+y is int)
 Thedata type of an expression depends on the
type(s) of its operands
 If both are of type int, then the expression is of type int.

 If either one or both operands are of type double, then

the expression is of type double.

 Anexpression that has mixed operands of type int
and double is a mixed-type expression.
MIXED-TYPE ASSIGNMENT
STATEMENT
 Theexpression being evaluated and the variable to
which it is assigned have different data types
 The expression is first evaluated; then the result is
assigned to the variable to the left side of = operator
 Example: what is the value ofy = 5/2 when y is of type
double? (answer: 5/2 is 2; y = 2.0)
 Warning: assignment of a type double expression
to a type int variable causes the fractional part of
the expression to be lost.
 Example: what is the type of the assignment y = 5.0 / 2.0
when y is of type int? (answer: 5.0/2.0 is 2.5; y = 2)
TYPE CONVERSION THROUGH CASTS
C allows the programmer to convert the type of an
expression by placing the desired type in parentheses
before the expression.
 This operation is called a type cast.
 (double)5 / (double)2 is the double value 2.5
 (int)(9 * 0.5) is the int value 4

 When casting from double to int, the decimal

fraction is truncated (NOT rounded).
EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF TYPE CASTS
/* Computes a test average */
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int total; /* total score */
int students; /* number of students */
double average; /* average score */

printf("Enter total students score> ");

scanf("%d", &total);
printf("Enter number of students> ");
scanf("%d", &students);
average = (double) total / (double) students;
printf("Average score is %.2f\n", average);
return 0;
}
EXPRESSIONS WITH MULTIPLE
OPERATORS
 Operators are of two types: unary and binary
 Unary operators take only one operand
 Unary minus (-) and Unary plus (+) operators

 Binary operators take two operands

 Examples: addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (*),

division (/) and integer remainder (%) operators

A single expression could have multiple operators

 Example: -a + b*c – d/2
RULES FOR EVALUATING
EXPRESSIONS
 Parentheses rule - All expressions in parentheses must be
evaluated separately.
 Nested parenthesized expressions must be evaluated from the
inside out, with the innermost expression evaluated first.
 Operator precedence rule – Multiple operators in the same
expression are evaluated in the following order:
 First: unary +, –
 Second: *, /, %
 Third: binary +, –
 Associativity rule
 Unary operators in the same subexpression and at the same
precedence level are evaluated right to left
 Binary operators in the same subexpression and at the same
precedence level are evaluated left to right
 STEP
EXPRESSIO
N
EVALUATIO
Evaluation N
Tree
EVALUATE: z - (a + b/2) + w*-y

Evaluation
Tree
SUPERMARKET COIN PROCESSOR
SUPERMARKET COIN PROCESSOR (CONT'D)
FORMATTING INTEGERS IN PROGRAM OUTPUT
 You can specify how printf will display integers
 For integers, use %nd
 % start of placeholder
 n is the optional field width = number of columns to display

 If n is less than integer size, it will be ignored

 If n is greater than integer size, spaces are added to the left

Value Format Output Value Format Output

234 %4d 234 -234 %4d -234
234 %5d 234 -234 %5d -234
234 %6d 234 -234 %6d -234
234 %1d 234 -234 %2d -234
FORMATTING TYPE DOUBLE VALUES
 Use %n.mf for double values
 n is the optional field width = number of digits in the whole

number, the unary minus, decimal point, and fraction digits

 If n is less than what the number needs it will be ignored

 .m is the number of decimal places (optional)

Value Format Output Value Format Output

3.14159 %5.2f 3.14 3.14159 %4.2f 3.14
3.14159 %3.2f 3.14 3.14159 %5.1f 3.1
3.14159 %5.3f 3.142 3.14159 %8.5f 3.14159
0.1234 %4.2f 0.12 -0.006 %4.2f -0.01
-0.006 %8.3f -0.006 -0.006 %8.5f -0.00600
-0.006 %.3f -0.006 -3.14159 %.4f -3.1416
 COMMON PROGRAMMING
ERRORS
 Syntax Errors (Detected by the Compiler)
 Violating one or more grammar rules
 Missing semicolon (end of variable declaration or statement)
 Undeclared variable (using a variable without declaration)
 Comment not closed (missing */ at end of comment)
 Run-Time Errors (NOT detected by compiler)
 Detected by the computer when running the program
 Illegal operation, such as dividing a number by zero
 Program cannot run to completion
 Undetected and Logic Errors
 Program runs to completion but computes wrong results
 Input was not read properly
 Wrong algorithm and computation