MET 413

ADVANCED NDT
JISHNOOP JAYAPRAKASH
Assistant Professor
ASET
Phased Array Techniques
• Phased Array is an ultrasonic testing technique that uses specialized
multi-element “array” transducers and pulses those elements
separately in a patterned sequence called “phasing”.
• This phasing sequence allows wave steering, focusing, and scanning.
This is all performed electronically. The examination can be tailored
for each application, increasing speed and reliability of the inspection.
Principle
• Uses a set of ultrasonic testing probes made up of
numerous small elements.
• Each of these is pulsed individually with
computer-calculated timing to create the phased
aspect of the process, while the array refers to the
multiple elements that make up a PAUT system.
• The beam from a phased array probe can be
focused and electronically swept across an
inspection piece without moving the probe itself.
• Phased array ultrasonic testing is based on the
principles of wave physics, i.e Constructive,
intermediate and destructive interference.
Working
• Phased array ultrasonic testing probes are made up of several piezoelectric crystals
that transmit/receive independently at different times.
• An ultrasonic beam is focused using time delays, which are applied to the elements
to create a constructive interference in the wave fronts.
• This interference allows the energy to be focused at any depth and angle in the test
specimen.
• Each element radiates a spherical wave at a specified time, creating waves that
converge and diverge to create an almost planar wave front at the specified location.
• Changing the progressive time delay allows the beam to be steered electronically
and swept through the test material like a searchlight.
• When multiple beams are put together it creates a visual image that shows a slice
through the test object.
• By varying the timing of the individual waves from a large number of
sources, it is possible to use these effects to both steer and focus the
resulting combined wave front.
• Pulsing individual elements or groups of elements with different
delays creates a series of point source waves that will combine into a
single wave front traveling at a selected angle
• Through constructive interference, the amplitude of this combined
wave can be considerably greater than the amplitude of any one of the
individual waves that produce it.
Probes
• Linear array probes
• These probes are made up of a set of elements
juxtaposed and aligned along an axis.
• They enable a beam to be moved, focused, and
deflected along a plane.
• Annular array probes
• Made up of a set of concentric rings.
• They allow the beam to be focused to different
depths along an axis.
• Circular array probes
• Made up of a set of elements arranged in a
circle.
• These elements can be directed either towards
the interior, or towards the exterior, or along
the axis of symmetry of the circle.
• Matrix array probes
• Active area divided in two dimensions in
different elements.
• This division can be in the form of a
checkerboard, or sectored rings.
• These probes allow the ultrasonic beam to be
driven in 3D by combining electronic focusing
and deflection.
Some other types of probes
Wedges • Height of first element (ℎ1): The linear dimension
from the contact face of the wedge vertically to the
center of the first element.
• Roof angle (𝜔): In a complex angle wedge, the
roof angle is the minor angle, while incident angle
is the major angle
• Squint Angle (𝑎): Rotation of the phased array
transducer on the wedge
• Wedge Angle (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑓): The incident angle of a wedge
as referenced to the normal longitudinal axis
• Wedge Velocity (𝑣𝑤): The longitudinal wave speed
of the wedge material.
• x1: Distance from back end of wedge to projected
center of first element
• x2: Distance from projected center of first element
to ‘diffuser’ or the thick end of the
Focal Law
• Each and every element is configured by the software algorithm called
delay law or focal laws.
• It is a mathematical formula containing the entire set of hardware and
software parameters for phased array operation,
• The delay law will define the following for each element according to
the beam steering and beam focusing for both the transmitter and
receiver functions.
• The elements to be fired
• Time delays
• Voltages
Beam Focusing
• By focusing a sound beam we can achieve a higher sensitivity and
resolution.
• The term “focus” is a concentration of the beam to a size of focal point
diameter.
• In phased array we can define the focal depth according to the area of
interest.
• Hence the sensitivity and resolution of the inspection will be
increased.
Steering
• Beam steering and focusing principle by controlling the delays
between the probe elements
 Beam multiplexing for weld inspection

Beam multiplexing for tube inspection

Scanning
• Linear
• Sectorial
• C Scan
Linear
• Scanning is done along the length of a linear array probe to
create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer.
• A phased array system can use electronic scanning along the
length of a linear array probe to create a cross-sectional
profile without moving the transducer.
• As each focal law is sequenced, the associated A-scan is
digitized and plotted.
• Successive apertures are "stacked" creating a live cross-
sectional view.
• In practice this electronic sweeping is done in real time so that
a live cross section can be continually viewed as the
transducer is physically moved
Fixed angled linear scan
• Useful for automated weld inspection.
• Using a 64-element linear phased array probe with
wedge, shear waves can be generated at a user
defined angle (often 45, 60, or 70 degrees).
• With aperture sequencing through the length of the
probe, full volumetric weld data can be collected
without the need for physically moving the probe
perpendicular to the weld centreline while
scanning.
• This provides for single-pass inspection along the
weld length.
Sectorial
• In a linear scan, all focal laws employ a fixed
angle with sequencing apertures.
• Sectorial scans use fixed apertures and steer
through a defined sequence of angles.
• Sectorial scans are unique to phased array testing
because of their multiple-angle nature and are the
most commonly used phased array scanning mode.
• As with the linear scan, the image presentation is a
cross-sectional picture of the inspected area of the
test piece.
Type 1
• The most familiar
• Very common in medical imaging
• Uses a 0 degree (flat) plastic wedge to steer
longitudinal waves to create a pie-shaped
image showing laminar and slightly angled
defects.
• The beam commonly sweeps from −30
degrees to +30 degrees
Type 2
• The second format employs an angled
plastic wedge to increase the incident
beam angle for generation of shear waves,
most commonly in the refracted angle
range of 30 to 70 degrees.
• This technique is similar to conventional
angle beam inspection, except that the
beam sweeps through a range of angles
rather than just a single fixed angle
determined by a wedge.
C Scan
•A two-dimensional
presentation of data
displayed as a top or planar
view of a test piece.
• C-scan may be made by
physically moving along
just one axis while the
beam electronically scans
along the other according
to the focal law sequence.
Advantages
• Simplified Inspection and Interpretation
• Increased Flaw Detection
• Faster Inspection Speeds
• More Reliable Results
Disadvantages
• Applicability
• Complexity
• Cost
Time of Flight Diffraction
• In conventional UT testing, the amplitude of reflected signal is measured to identify cracks.
This depends on the orientation of the crack.
• Instead of amplitude, TOFD uses the time of flight of an ultrasonic pulse to determine the
position and size of a reflector.
• In a TOFD system, a pair of ultrasonic probes sits on opposite sides of a weld.
• One of the probes, the transmitter, emits an ultrasonic pulse that is picked up by the probe on
the other side, the receiver.
• In undamaged pipes, the signals picked up by the receiver probe are from two waves: one
that travels along the surface and one that reflects off the far wall.
• When a crack is present, there is a diffraction of the ultrasonic wave from the tip(s) of the
crack.
• Using the measured time of flight of the pulse, the depth of a crack tips can be calculated
automatically by simple trigonometry.
TOFD Principle
• When an ultrasonic wave interacts with a crack-like flaw it results in
diffracted waves from the crack tips, in addition to specular reflected
waves from the surface of the crack.
• This diffracted wave from the tip of the crack is used to accurately size
the depth of the crack.
• The diffracted waves are much weaker than specularly reflected waves
used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the
tips in all directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic
waves.
TOFD Setup
Data Acquisition and Interpretation
• The receiver receives 4 signals
• Lateral wave (LW)
• Back-wall echo (BE)
• Mode converted shear wave echo
• Diffracted signals from defects
• Lateral wave
• A sub / near-surface longitudinal wave generated
from the wide beam of the transducer.
• The lateral wave is not a surface wave.
• Takes the path of least time/distance between two
points
• The frequency of the lateral wave tends to be lower
than the waves at the center of the beam and hence
has a wider beam spread.
• Since, lateral waves are weak waves, the amplitude
would decay exponentially with distance from the
inspection surface.
• For large probe separation distance, lateral waves
and may not even be seen.
• For a curved surface it will travel straight across the
metal between the two probes.
• Back wall signal
• A large and strong longitudinal wave reflected from the back wall.
• The back wall signal is observed after the lateral wave because of the greater
distance travelled.

• Diffracted wave - Defect signal

• If any crack is present in the weld, diffraction occurs at the top and bottom tips of
the defect and are seen between the lateral wave and the back wall signal
• These signals are generally weaker than the back wall signal but stronger than the
lateral wave.

• Mode converted shear signals

• Appears after the back wall signal
• Is a much larger signal.
• Mode converted signals takes a longer time to arrive at the receiver.
Probe
• Parameter to be considered before selection of probes:
• To achieve wider beam coverage low frequency and small diameters
probe can be used. But as the frequency of the probe decreases the test
sensitivity will also be decreased.
• High frequency probes are used in ToFD as it gives better sensitivity
and resolution.
• Use of the high frequency probes for testing is a compromise on the
wider beam coverage.
Beam Spread
• Higher the bream spread more volume on the test material can be
covered.
• High dampened and broad band probes are generally used in TOFD to
get wider beam coverage (larger volume coverage).
Probe Frequency
• Higher the frequency, better the resolution.
• But may lead to attenuation and less beam coverage.
Probe Angle
• Choice of probe angle depends on
• The material thickness
• The component geometry
• The technique
• The scan plan i.e whether the volume is covered in one pass or multiple passes.
• 70 degree probe will have wider coverage, but least time spread and will
have poor resolution.
• 45 degree probe will have the smallest beam coverage, but the maximum
time spread and will have good resolution.
• 60 degree probe is considered as a good choice considering the volume
coverage and time spread.
Probe-Centre Separation (PCS)
• Distance between index point of transmitter and receiver in TOFD setup.
• For curved objects it is the shortest distance between the index points.
• This is generally based on focusing point in the examining material (or a
typical weld)
• PCS depends on the focus depth and the probe angle
• Change in PCS will effect the focus and coverage of volume.
• When PCS is increased, weld coverage increases ,if all other parameters
are constant.
• Low PCS gives very good near-surface resolution.
Effect of change in PCS and probe angle
Techniques
• With respect to direction of scan,
• Longitudinal Scan
• Parallel Scan
• With respect to the type of mechanism used,
• Manual scanning
• Semi-automatic scanning
• Mechanical scanning
Longitudinal Scan (D-scan)
• Scan direction is Perpendicular to the probe
beam direction.
• Most frequently used for weld inspection.
• High speed inspection.
• Defect depth only accurate when the probes
are symmetrically positioned with regard to
the defect.
• Defect lateral position is unknown.
Parallel scan (B scan)
• Movement of probes is parallel to the
probe beam direction.
• Precise sizing and positioning is
possible
• Time will be minimum when probes
are symmetrically positioned over
the defect.
• Weld cap often reduces or makes
impossible the extend of the scan.
Manual Scanning
• Manual scanning is achieved by the use of jigs which has the probe holders
and it allows the probes to be moved (adjusted) horizontally to set the PCS.
Encoders are fixed to the jigs to record the position of the probes.
• In manual scanning we can mark the PCS and the edges of the probe so that
the inspector knows if he is deviating from the marked positions. Use of
guides (magnetic strips, rulers etc.) will also help to get the scan straight.
Always set the probes such that the weld axis is in the centre of the two
probes.
• Manual scanning needs practice and experience to get a good scan as it is not
easy to maintain the constant movement and direction. However the inspector
can stop and restart the scan from the areas where the data is not captured
properly or if there is missing data.
Mechanical Scanning
• Mechanical scanning is achieved by the use of scanners, similar to manual jigs
it has the probe holders and it allows the probes to be moved (adjusted)
horizontally to set the PCS.
• Encoders can be fixed to the scanner to record the position of the probes. The
positions are set and the inspector has to ensure the scanner is not deviating
from the marked location.
• Mechanical scanning can be semi-automatic where the inspector uses
mechanical means to move the scanner like a handle or through the gear
mechanism.
• It can be automatic where the scanner is operated using motor. Some of the
advance systems allows the motor to be operated from the equipment itself,
where the speed and its movements are controlled.
Calibration
• Done using reference block.
• Type of scan, type of UT wave, voltage, PCS, Probe angle, frequency,
thickness of item etc. are set first.
• Set the lateral wave, back wall and the mode converted signals on the
screen using the reference block and verify the timing of lateral wave
and the back wall signals against the manually calculated timings.
Flaw location and sizing
• Flaw length from a non-parallel scan (D-Scan), is measured from end
to end of the signal after compensating for beam spread.
• If the flaw is curved, then it is difficult to accurately measure the
length and done more often with errors.
• Length of the flaw is defined by the difference of the x-coordinates of
the extremities of the indication
Interpretation and evaluation
• Interpretation and analysis of TOFD images is generally performed as
follows:
• Assessing the quality of the TOFD-image
• Identification of relevant indications and discrimination of non-relevant
indications
• Classification of relevant indications in terms of:
• Embedded (linear, point-like)
• Surface breaking
• Determination of location, length and height (sizing)
• Evaluation against acceptance criteria
Application
• Inspection of complex geometries like nozzle-
shell, pipe-flange, reducer-pipe etc.
• For non nuclear applications including vessels for
the chemical/process industries, complex forgings
and castings (eg turbine discs) and nodal
configurations on tubular structures.
• Detection of cracks in service pipes, pressure
vessels etc.
• Monitoring of cracks during service- Continuous
Condition Monitoring
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique
(SAFT)
• The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) has been used to
restore ultrasonic images obtained either from B or C scans with
focusing distortion.
• SAFT has been used in ultrasonic imaging systems mainly due to its
two benefits:
• It improves the lateral resolution in a broad focal zone,
• It is capable of improving contrast in ultrasonic images by reducing
backscattering effects due to the coarse material structure.
• SAFT operates in two modes
• Contact mode : In contact mode
ultrasonic transducer is directly
coupled to the surface of the
inspected object using a thin layer
of contact agent.
• Immersion mode : The object and
transducer are immersed in a liquid
medium (commonly water) and
ultrasonic waves propagate
towards the inspected object
through a thick water layer.
Structural Health Monitoring
• SHM is the continuous, autonomous in-service monitoring of the
physical condition of a structure by means of embedded or attached
sensors with a minimum manual intervention, to monitor the structural
integrity of the Object.
• The basic is the application of permanent fixed sensors on the
structure.
• SHM includes all monitoring aspects related to damages, loads,
conditions, etc. which have a direct influence on the structure.
• The sources are resulting from fatigue, corrosion, impacts, excessive
loads, unforeseen conditions, etc.
SHM Elements
• Structure
• Sensors
• Data acquisition systems
• Data transfer and storage mechanism
• Data management
• Data interpretation and diagnosis:
• System Identification
• Structural model update
• Structural condition assessment
• Prediction of remaining service life
SHM Methods
• Passive SHM
• Mainly concerned with measuring various operational parameters
and then inferring the state of structural health from these
parameters.
• For example, one could monitor the flight parameters of an aircraft
(airspeed, air turbulence, g-factors, vibration levels, stresses in
critical locations, etc.) and then use the aircraft design algorithms
to infer how much of the aircraft’s useful life has been used up and
how much is expected to remain.
• It does not directly examine whether the structure has been
damaged or not.
SHM
• Active SHM
• Concerned with directly assessing the state of structural health by
trying to detect the presence and extent of structural damage.
• Active SHM approach is similar to the approach taken by non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) methodologies.
• Active SHM attempts to develop damage detection sensors that can
be permanently installed on the structure and monitoring methods
that can provide on-demand structural health bulletins.
SHM Sensors
• Fibre optic sensors
• To measure strains, structural displacements, vibrations frequencies,
acceleration, pressure, temperature, and humidity.
• Accelerometer
• Used for real-time monitoring the variations of structural dynamic
characteristics due to damage or change in structural performance
• Vibrating Wire Sensors
• The principal component is a tensioned steel wire that vibrates, when pulsed,
at a resonant frequency that is proportional to the strain in the wire.
• Used to measure static strain, stress, pressure, tilt, and displacement through
various sensor configurations.
SHM Sensors
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Used for measuring linear displacement
• Load Cells
• Used for converting a mechanical force such as tension, compression,
pressure, or torque into a measurable electrical output.
• Tilt meter
• Used to monitor subsurface movements and deformations.
• Inclinometer
• Used for monitoring very small changes in the inclination of a structure.
SHM Sensors
• Strain Gauges – Most common
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force;
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight,
etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured when external
forces are applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result.
• These sensors are most often used to
monitor strain in steel and reinforced
concrete structures.
• Acoustic Emission Sensor
• Measures high-frequency energy signals that are generated from local sources
of stress waves.
• Discontinuities and defects in a material generate stress waves. AE sensors are
able to pick up the stress waves propagated to the material’s surface.
• Temperature Sensors
• Measure the temperature that affects physical properties of structures to some
extend.
Genetic Algorithm
• Optimization method inspired by the natural phenomena of biological
evolution.
• An evolutionary algorithm uses natural selection to improve the
fitness of the overall population, when a population of individuals is
given.
• In SHM, genetic algorithm is used to decide sensor placement.
• Since placing more sensors can be expensive and complicated, optimal
positions for placement of sensors have to be determined.
Flowchart of a general GA algorithm