DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Gaymary G. Bakari
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The organs that are involved in the breaking down of food into
molecules that can pass through the wall of the digestive tract and can be
taken up by the cells.
Digestive Processes
There are five basic activities that are involved in the digestive process
1.Ingestion- The taking of food into the mouth.
2. Mixing and movement of food- Involves the muscular contractions
(peristalsis) that mix the food and move it along the digestive tract.
3.Digestion - The break down of food by mechanical and chemical
means.
4.Absorption - The passage of food from the digestive tract into the
cardiovascular and lymphatic system.
5.Defecation - The elimination of indigestible waste.
Alimentary canal composition

 Also called gastrointestinal tract

 Composed of mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine
 Functions in the digestion and absorption of food

Accessory Organs
 Include teeth, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, and
pancreas
 Produce secretions to aid in the process of digestion
 Examples: saliva, bile, and other digestive enzymes
The components of the digestive system
Digestive system of monogastric animal (dog)
Digestive Process
1. Ingestion
2. Propulsion (swallowing and peristalsis)
3. Mechanical Digestion (chewing, churning,
segmentation)
4. Chemical Digestion (saliva, acid and enzymes)
5. Absorption (lymph and blood vessels)
6. Defecation
Digestive categories of animals
Animals digestive system is categorised into two major
groups:
1. Nature of diets taken by the animal:
i. Carnivores - sorely on meat e.g. cats, dogs
ii. Herbivores – grass e.g. cattle, goats
iii. Omnivores – mixed e.g. pigs, warthog, human being

2. Stomach morphology:
i. Simple stomach - monogastric animals (human
beings, lions, dogs)
ii. Compartmentalized stomach – Cattle, buffalo
3. Microbial activity
 Hind gut fementers e.g. camel, zebra, horse

 Fore gut fementers e.g. cow, buffallo, goat

 Types of digestive systems
Hind Gut
Monogastric Ruminants Fementers

Chickens Pigs Beef Cattle Dairy Cattle

Horses

Rabbits
Turkeys Dogs Goats Sheep

Ostrich
Cats Deer
Ruminant -cow Hind gut fermenter horse

Monogastric -pig
Digestion: Involves two stages
1. Mechanical digestion
Physical breakdown of food into smaller particles by the
cutting and grinding action of the teeth and the churning
contractions of the stomach and small intestines.
Serves to expose more food surface to the actions of the
digestive enzymes

2. Chemical digestion
A series of hydrolysis reactions that break macromolecules
into their monomers
Polysaccharides into monosacharides
Proteins into amino acids
Nucleic acids into nucliotides
Fats into glycerol and fatty acids

Hydrolysis carried out by digestive enzymes from the

Salivary glands, stomach
Pancreas
small intestine
Some foods are absorbed without enzymatic action
Vitamins, free amino acids, minerals, cholesterol,
and water
Processes in digestion/ functions of digestive
system
1. Motility- the muscular contractions that break up food,
mix, and propel food

2. Secretion- the release of enzymes and hormones that

carry out and regulate digestion

3. Membrane transport- all the mechanisms that absorb

nutrients and transfer them into the blood and lymph
(active transport, facilitated diffusion, etc.)

4. Organization
Peritoneum and peritoneal cavity
Peritoneum is the serous membrane lining the abdomino-pelvic
cavity
1. Visceral peritoneum covers the external surfaces of most
digestive organs and is continuous with the parietal peritoneum
that lines the body wall
2. Between the two peritoneums is the peritoneal cavity
3. Mesentery is a double layer peritoneum; provides routes for
blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves
 Alimentary canal organs are classified as:
 Retroperitoneal - no mesentery and organs lies posterior to the
peritoneum
 Intraperitoneal - mesentery and organs lies within the peritoneal
cavity
Blood supply: Splanchnic circulation
 Involves those arteries that branch off the abdominal aorta to
serve the digestive organs & the hepatic portal circulation

 Hepatic, splenic and left gastric branches of the celiac trunk

serving the spleen, liver and stomach
Hepatic portal circulation:
Collects nutrient-rich venous blood from the digestive
viscera
Delivers this blood to the liver for metabolic processing
and storage

 And the mesenteric arteries (superior and inferior) that serve the
small and larger intestines
Blood Supply
Histology of the alimentary canal
Alimentary canal composed of 2 main epithelium.
1. Stratified squamous epithelium
2. Simple columnar epithelium

Where by :
 Stratified squamous epithelium,
- Start : mouth
- End : upper part of the esophagus
 Simple columnar epithelium,
- Start : upper part of esophagus
- End : Rectum
Histology of the alimentary canal
Alimentary canal composed of 4 layers (tunics)
1. Mucosa - composed of simple columnar epithelium rich in
mucus secreting goblet cells
lamina propria that nourish epithelial cells and absorbs nutrients
2. Lamina Muscularis containing smooth muscle involved in
local motion
3. Submucosa - contains blood and lymph
4. Muscularis externa - circular and longitudinal muscles
involved in segmentation and peristalsis
5. Serosa - visceral peritoneum
Mucosa (mucous membrane)
Moist epithelial layer that lines the lumen of the
alimentary canal

Three major functions:

i. Secretion of mucus, enzymes and hormones
ii. Absorption of end products of digestion into the blood
iii. Protection against infectious disease

Consists of three sublayers: a lining epithelium,

lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae
Mucosa: Epithelial lining
Simple columnar epithelium and mucus-secreting goblet
cells

Mucus secretions:
 Protect digestive organs from digesting themselves
 Ease food along the tract

Stomach and small intestine mucosa contain:

Enzyme-secreting cells
Hormone-secreting cells (making them endocrine and digestive
organs)
Mucosa: lamina propria and muscularis mucosae

Lamina Propria
 Loose areolar and reticular connective tissue
 Nourishes the epithelium and absorbs nutrients
 Contains lymph nodes important in defense against bacteria

Muscularis mucosae – smooth muscle cells that

produce local movements of mucosa
Mucosa: other sublayers
Submucosa – dense connective tissue containing
elastic fibers, blood and lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and nerves

Muscularis externa
 responsible for segmentation and peristalsis
 Inner circular layer that may thicken to form sphincters
 Outer longitudinal layer

Serosa – the protective visceral peritoneum

 Replaced by the fibrous adventitia in the esophagus
 Retroperitoneal organs have both an adventitia and serosa
Histology of the alimentary canal
Regulation of GIT functions
 The digestive system has a complex system of motility and
secretion regulation which is vital for proper function.

 This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the

central nervous system(CNS), short reflexes from the enteric
nervous system (ENS) and reflexes from GI peptides working in
harmony with each other.

 External environment for the digestive process

 Regulation of digestion involves:
 Mechanical and chemical stimuli – stretch receptors,
osmolarity, and presence of substrate in the lumen
 Extrinsic control by CNS centers
 Intrinsic control by local centers
Receptors of the GI Tract
 Mechano- and chemoreceptors respond to:
 Stretch, osmolarity, and pH
 Presence of substrate, and end products of digestion

 They initiate reflexes that:

 Activate or inhibit digestive glands that secrete digestive
enzymes into the lumen or hormones into the blood
 Mix lumen contents and move them along by stimulating
smooth muscles of the GI tract walls
Nervous control of the GI tract
 Intrinsic controls (short reflexes) -Intrinsic nerve supply of the
alimentary canal
 Nerve plexuses near the GI tract initiate short reflexes
 Short reflexes are mediated by local enteric plexuses (gut
brain)
 Regulates glands and smooth muscle in the mucosa

 Extrinsic controls (long reflexes)

 Long reflexes arising within or outside the GI tract
 Involve CNS centers and extrinsic autonomic nerves
a) Sympathetic impulses inhibit secretion and motility
b) Parasympathetic impulses stimulate
Long reflexes
 Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron
sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and
then sends messages to the digestive system.

 While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the

GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources
other than the GI tract.

 When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feed-
forward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or
danger triggering effects in the GI tract.

 Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the

butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward
and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic
reflexes.
Short reflexes
 Composed of two major intrinsic nerve plexuses:
i. Submucosal nerve plexus – regulates glands (secretion) and
smooth muscle in the mucosa
ii. Myenteric nerve plexus – Located between the circular &
longitudinal muscle layers.
 Major nerve supply that controls GI tract mobility
 Segmentation and peristalsis are largely automatic involving local
reflex arcs
 Sensory information from the digestive system can be received,
integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this
occurs, the reflex is called a short reflex.
 The myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus are both located in
the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut
or the CNS.
Nervous control of the GI tract
 Hormones of digestive tract
This diagram summarizes the
activities of major hormones:
Chyme arrives in Duodenum
1) Arrival of chime in the
intestine stimulates secretion
of GIP, CCK and secretin by
the small intestine
2) Secretin stimulate release of
bicarbonate and pancreatic
juice by the pancreas, inhibits
secretion of acid and
Pepsinogen by the stomach
(see red arrow and blue line)
3) CCK stimulate release of bile
by the gall bladder, release of
pancreatic juice by the
pancreas and inhibits
secretion of acid and
Pepsinogen by the stomach
DIGESTIVE PROCESSES IN THE MOUTH
Mouth and salivary glands are involved in the
digestive process
1. Food is ingested
2. Mechanical digestion begins (chewing)
3. Propulsion is initiated by swallowing
4. Salivary amylase begins chemical breakdown of
polysaccharides (starch & glycogen)
5. Lingual lipase secreted in the mouth acts in the acidic
condition of the stomach
6. The pharynx and esophagus serve only as conduits to pass
food from the mouth to the stomach
(a) Prehension
This is a process of seizing or grasping or otherwise getting food into the
mouth.
 Different species use different techniques to prehend food - For example,
horses and goats rely considerably on their lips,
 Whereas cattle, dogs and cats don't use their lips to any extent, but rather,
gather many foods with their tongues.

 As with prehension, there are considerable differences among species in

techniques used for drinking, that basically boil down to being either a "sucker" or
a "lapper".

 Drinking is usually an efficient process, although beards and moustaches can

sometimes interfere.
(b) Mastication (chewing)
Is the first step in the breakdown of complex foodstuffs and serves
several functions, including:
a) Breaking large pieces into small pieces, resulting in a massive
increase in surface area, which is where digestive enzymes work.
b) Softening of food and transformation into a size conducive to
swallowing.
c) Lubrication of food by impregnating it with saliva.

 Partly voluntary, partly reflexive

 The pattern and rhythm of continued jaw movements are

controlled mainly by stretch reflexes and in response to pressure
inputs from receptors in the cheeks, gums, tongue
Mastication cont’
To study this phenomenon, watch a cow ruminating or look
around and watch someone chewing gum.

 The presence of food (or gum) in the mouth causes a reflex

inhibition of the muscles of the lower jaw.

 Those muscles relax and the lower jaw drops, causing a stretch
reflex which causes muscle contraction and closure of the mouth.

 During mastication, the tongue and, to a lesser extent, the lips and
cheeks acts to keep food between the grinding surfaces of the teeth.
Glands in the mouth: Salivary Glands and Saliva
 Saliva is produced in and secreted from salivary glands.

 The basic secretory units of salivary glands are clusters of cells

called an acini.
 These cells secrete a fluid that contains water, electrolytes, mucus
and enzymes, all of which flow out of the acinus into collecting
ducts.
 Within the ducts, the composition of the secretion is altered.

 Much of the sodium is actively reabsorbed, potassium is secreted,

and large quantities of bicarbonate ion are secreted.
 Bicarbonate secretion is of tremendous importance to ruminants because
it, along with phosphate, provides a critical buffer that neutralizes the
massive quantities of acid produced in the fore-stomachs.

 Small collecting ducts within salivary glands lead into larger ducts,
eventually forming a single large duct that empties into the oral cavity.

 Most animals have three major pairs of salivary glands that differ in the
type of secretion they produce:

1. Parotid glands - produce a serous, water secretion.

2. Submaxillary (mandibular) glands - produce a mixed serous and
mucous secretion.
3. Sublingual glands - secrete a saliva that is predominantly mucous in
character
Saliva: Source and Composition
Secreted from serous and mucous cells of salivary
glands

97-99.5% water, hyposmotic, slightly acidic solution

containing
i. Electrolytes – Na+, K+, Cl–, PO42–, HCO3–
ii. Digestive enzyme – salivary amylase
iii. Proteins – mucin, lysozyme, defensins, and IgA
iv. Metabolic wastes – urea and uric acid
v. Lingual lipase (enzyme) digests fat
vi. Protection against microrganisms: e.g. IgA & lysozyme
Salivary glands
Glands (three pairs are responsible for most secretions):
a) Parotid - Largest, triangular in shape & located at the apex
ventral to the ear,
and secrete fluid devoid of mucin.
b) Submaxillary or submandible - Found ventral to the
parotid & just behind
mandibles, and secrete mucin-containing saliva (mixed).
c) Sublingual - Closely associated with the tongue & found
below the floor of
mouth, and secrete mucin-containing saliva (mucous).
Salivary glands
Two basic types of acinar epithelial cells exist:
 serous cells, which secrete a watery fluid, essentially
devoid of mucus.

 Mucous cells, which produce a very mucus-rich

secretion.

Acini in the parotid glands are almost exclusively of the

serous type, while those in the sublingual glands are
predominantly mucous cells.

In the submaxillary glands, it is common to observe

acini composed of both serous and mucous epithelial
cells.
Nervous regulation of salivary secretions
 Nervous regulation of salivary secretions is largely due to
parasympathetic stimulation.

 The salivatory nuclei located near the pons are excited by taste
and tactile stimulation in the tongue and mouth.

 Sour taste stimuli may increase the secretion of saliva to 8

ml/min; tactile stimulation by an object, such as a pipe in the
mouth, may also increase the output of saliva.

 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and acetylcholine (ACh),

that coexist in parasympathetic nerve endings, cause
vasodilatation of blood vessels and salivary ducts and stimulate an
increase in saliva secretion, respectively.
 The parasympathetics also
stimulate an increase in
synthesis and secretion of
amylase (ptyalin) and mucus

 ACh stimulates HCO3- and K+

secretion and absorption of Na+
and Cl- from salivary duct cells.

 ACh elicits its actions through

secondary messengers, inositol
triphosphate (IP3)and
diacylglycerol (DAG).

 VIP acts via cAMP.

Sympathetic stimulation by norepinephrine can also increase
salivary gland secretion, mostly serous, but its effect is short-
lived and causes only a slight increase in secretion.

 This is followed by constriction of blood vessels to the salivary

glands and constriction of myoepithelial cells around ducts to
ultimately inhibit the secretion of saliva.

Various stressful states, like having to speak before a group,

can inhibit salivary secretion because the sympathetic system
is stimulated.

 Norepinephrine elicits its action through the secondary

messenger cAMP.
Neuronal control of salivation
Control of Salivation
 Chemo and mechano receptors send signals to the salivary
nuclei in the brain stem (pons and medulla)
Chemoreceptors: activated strongly by acidic substances
Mechanoreceptors: “ “ any mechanical stimulus

 Efferent impulses are sent via motor fibers in the facial and
glossopharyngeal nerves

 Strong sympathetic stimulation inhibits salivation and results in

dry mouth
 Composition of saliva
1. Saliva consist of 98% water, with the reminder the ions
and inorganic compounds. Saliva has many functions:

2. It contains mucin, glycoprotein which becomes a viscous

fluid, mucus, when mixed with water.
The mucus facilitates chewing and swallowing. A great reduced
rate of saliva secretion makes swallowing difficult.

Mucin produced by the epithelial cells in the rest of the

digestive tract, forming the continuous mucus layer that protects
the epithelial cells.
Composition of saliva
3. In omnivorous, a simple stomached herbivores and certain
avian species, saliva helps to break down starch by action of
salivary amylase (ptyalin) enzyme.
 The pig produces most of salivary amylase of all the
domesticated animals and human saliva contains one hundred
times more amylase than pig saliva.

 Since the food remains in the mouth for the short time,
relatively little starch is broken down there.
 Composition of saliva
4. Salivary bicarbonate (HCO-3) neutralizes acid produced by the
bacteria in the oral cavity and prevents acid dissolution of the
dental enamel.
Saliva in monogastric animals is neutral while that of ruminant
has the pH of about 8.2, as the result of higher concentration of
HCO-3.

The larger volume of saliva secreted in ruminants transfer the

large quantities of buffered fluid to the forestomach.
Saliva support fermentation and neutralizes the acid produced in
the forestomach.
Composition of saliva
5. Saliva in ruminant contains high concentration of salivary
phosphate ions, which are necessary not only for its buffering
activity but also for microbial growth.
The phosphate supply from the saliva is particularly importance
when the feed has low phosphate content.

6. The enzymes lysozymes and antibodies in the saliva reduce

the number of bacteria in the oral cavity (oral hygiene).
If saliva secretion stops, infections appear in the oral cavity.
Composition of saliva
7. The saliva of bud and leaf eaters contain several proteins that
bind tannins (tannin is the plant component that reduce
digestibility of the feed).

8. Urea diffuses from the blood into saliva. Urea is an important

source of nitrogen for protein synthesis by microorganism in the
reticulorumen.

9. Evaporative cooling which important in dogs which have poorly

developed sweat glands.
 The parotid gland of the dog under intense parasympathetic
stimulation is capable of secretingat 10 times the rate (per g of
gland) in humans, thus, as effective as evaporation of sweat in
humans?
Functions of Saliva
What then are the important functions of saliva?
 Actually, saliva serves many roles, some of which are important
to all species, and others to only a few:

1. Lubrication and binding: the mucus in saliva is extremely

effective in binding masticated food into a slippery bolus that
(usually) slides easily through the esophagus without inflicting
damage to the mucosa

2. Saliva also coats the oral cavity and esophagus, and food
basically never directly touches the epithelial cells of those
tissues.
3. Solubilises dry food: in order to be tasted, the molecules in food must be
solubilised.

4. Oral hygiene: The oral cavity is almost constantly flushed with saliva,
which floats away food debris and keeps the mouth relatively clean.
 Flow of saliva diminishes considerably during sleep, allow
populations of bacteria to build up in the mouth -- the result is
dragon breath in the morning.

 Saliva also contains lysozyme, an enzyme that lyses many bacteria

and prevents overgrowth of oral microbial populations.
5. Initiates starch digestion: in most species, the serous acinar cells
secrete an alpha-amylase which can begin to digest dietary starch
into maltose. Amylase does not occur in the saliva of carnivores or
cattle.
6. Provides alkaline buffering and fluid: this is of great importance
in ruminants, which have non-secretory fore-stomachs.

7. Evaporative cooling: clearly of importance in dogs, which have

very poorly developed sweat glands - look at a dog panting after a
long run and this function will be clear.

o Diseases of the salivary glands and ducts are not uncommon in

animals and man, and excessive salivation is a symptom of almost any
lesion in the oral cavity.

oThe dripping of saliva seen in rabid animals is not actually a result of

excessive salivation, but due to pharyngeal paralysis, which prevents
saliva from being swallowed.
Saliva flow, ionic strength and pH
 Saliva is principally a mixture of water and electrolytes; both
pass into the acini from a dense network of capillaries that
surround the salivary glands.

 The production of saliva is generally agreed to be a two ‐step

process.

 The coordinated activity of ion channels, water channels, pumps,

co transporters and exchangers.

 Results in the primary saliva formation. The initial product

secreted by the acinar cells into the lumen is nearly Isotonic to
plasma.
• As the initial product passes through the ductal regions of the
glands, sodium and chloride ions are absorbed and additional
potassium and bicarbonate ions are secreted, producing a final
hypotonic fluid that enters the mouth.

• As saliva production is stimulated, conc. of sodium, chloride, and

bicarbonate ions in the final product all increase with accelerated
flow.

• As bicarbonate levels increase, the pH of saliva changes from

slightly acidic (6‐7) to slightly basic (7‐ 8).

• The rise in pH values as the flow rate increases has been reported
in both whole and pure parotid saliva.
PHARYNX
 From the mouth, the oro- and laryngopharynx allow passage of:
 Food and fluids to the esophagus
 Air to the trachea

 Lined with stratified squamous epithelium and mucus glands

 Has two skeletal muscle layers

 Inner longitudinal
 Outer pharyngeal constrictors
ESOPHAGUS

 Muscular tube going from the laryngopharynx to the stomach

 Travels through the mediastinum and pierces the diaphragm
 Joins the stomach at the cardiac orifice
(c) Swallowing (deglutition).
The final step in pregastric digestion is swallowing, also known
as deglutition.
Food is first compacted by the tongue and involves the
coordinated activity of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, esophagus,
and 22 separate muscle groups
This is really a very complex process that can be thought of as
occurring in three steps:
 First, a bolus of food is pressed backward into the pharynx by the
tongue.
 This is the only step that is voluntary - the remaining steps occur by
reflex.
 Once the bolus reaches the pharynx several actions are initiated,
which basically involve shunting the bolus into the esophagus while
at the same time closing alternative routes of escape.
Swallowing cont’
 The lumen of the larynx is squeezed shut and the epiglottis
swings backward to cover the larynx.

 The larynx is also pulled forward and down making the opening
to the esophagus larger.
 Peristalsis moves food through the pharynx to the esophagus
 The gastro-esophogeal sphincter relaxes as the peristaltic wave
reaches the end of the esophagus allowing food to enter the
stomach

 Finally, the tongue presses backward and a peristaltic contraction

in the pharynx propels the bolus into the esophagus, where the
actual act of swallowing takes place.
Deglutition (Swallowing)
Deglutination involves 2 main phases:
1) Buccal phase (mouth)
 Voluntary
 Bolus is forced into the oropharynx
 Bolus stimulates mechanoreceptors in the pharynx generating
reflex activity

2) Pharyngeal-esophageal phase (Involuntary)

 Motor impulses from medulla & pons via the vagus nerve
cause contraction of muscles of the pharynx & esophagus
 All routes except into the digestive tract are sealed off
 Peristalsis moves food through the pharynx to the esophagus
 The gastro-esophogeal sphincter relaxes as the peristaltic
wave reaches the end of the esophagus allowing food to enter
the stomach
 Bolus of food

Tongue Uvula
Pharynx Bolus
Epiglottis Epiglottis
Glottis

Trachea Esophagus Bolus

(a) Upper esophageal (b) Upper esophageal (c) Upper esophageal
sphincter contracted sphincter relaxed sphincter contracted

Relaxed
Relaxed
muscles
Circular muscles muscles
contract,
constricting
Bolus of Gastroesophageal
passageway
food and pushing sphincter open
Longitudinal bolus down
muscles
contract,
shortening
passageway
ahead of bolus
Gastroesophageal Stomach
sphincter closed

(d) (e)
 STOMACH
The stomach is divided into four areas: Cardia, fundus, body, and
pylorus.
1. Cardia- surrounds the superior opening of the stomach near the
esophagus.
2. Fundus- the ballon-like portion above and to the left of the
cardia which acts as a temporary storage area.
3. Body- the large central portion of the stomach.
4. Pylorus- the narrow inferior region that leads to the duodenum.

* The pyloric sphincter is a muscular valve that that controls the

flow of food from the stomach to the duodenum and prevents
the regurgitation of food from the duodenum to the stomach.

.
Stomach
Temporary storage area
Chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is
converted to chyme
Nerve supply – sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers of
the autonomic nervous system
Blood supply – celiac trunk, and corresponding veins (part
of the hepatic portal system)
 Functions of the stomach
1. Storage of food
2. Digestion
3. Piecemeal evacuation :
4. Antibacterial action :
5. Secretion of intrinsic factor : which is essential for vit. B12
absorption.
6. Facilitate defecation : gastro-colic reflex.
7. Absorption : of small amount of water and alcohol.
8. Iron absorption : is facilitated by HCl.
Simple stomach
Stomach
Stomach lining
 The stomach is exposed to the harshest conditions in the digestive
tract
 To keep from digesting itself, the stomach has a mucosal barrier
with:
 A thick coat of bicarbonate-rich mucus on the stomach wall
 Epithelial cells that are joined by tight junctions
 Gastric glands that have cells impermeable to HCl
Glands of the stomach
 Gastric glands have a variety of
secretory cells
Mucous neck cells – mucus
Parietal cells – HCl and
intrinsic factor
Chief cells – pepsinogen
 Pepsinogen is activated to
pepsin by HCl in the
stomach
 Pepsin itself via a positive
feedback mechanism
Enteroendocrine cells –
gastrin, histamine,
cholecystokinin (CCK
Types of cells in gastric mucosa
o Mucus cells:
They are called pyloric glands and they secrete mucous.

o Oxyntic cells: (Parietal cells)

 Present in the body and fundus and secrete HCl and intrinsic factor.

o Peptic cells: (Chief cells) which secrete Pepsinogen.

o G cells: present in the antral mucosa and secrete gastrin hormone

Digestion in the stomach:
Divided into two phases: mechanical and chemical.
Mechanical- The muscular churning of the food contents that
mixes it with the gastric juices and forms the liquid mass called
chyme.
The muscular movement also propels the chyme toward
the duodenum, where the pyloric sphincter opens to allow
small portions to enter.
Chemical- The digestion of protein begins here with the
secretion of the enzyme, pepsin.
Gastric secretions.
A dog weighing 25 kg produces 0.5 to 1 liters of gastric juice
in 24 hours, while adult horse secrete approximately 30 liter.

In human, gastric glands secrete about 2500ml daily. Most

secretions occur 2-3 hours after a meal.

In pigs, food is stored in the stomach for the longer period of
time and secretion is more continuous than in other
monogastric animals.
Gastric secretions
 Gastric secretion is a colorless, watery, acidic, digestive fluid
produced in the stomach .
1. Physical properties;
 It is a watery fluid, that has a pale yellow colour , pH is 1-3 , the
volume secreted per day is 2-3 L .
 The stomach is famous for its secretion of acid, but acid is only
one of four major secretory products of the gastric epithelium, all
of which are important either to the digestive process or to control
of gastric function.
2. Chemical composition; It is 97-99% water , it contains inorganic
salts ,and organic components that include mucin, digestive
enzymes , hormones ….
 The gastric secretion is produced by the epithelium cells of the
gastric glands .
Goblet cells or mucus cells
These are mucous cells, which cover the entire luminal surface
and extend down into the glands as "mucous neck cells".
These cells secrete a bicarbonate-rich mucus that coats and
lubricates the gastric surface,
and serves an important role in protecting the epithelium from
hydrochloric acid and pepsin and other chemical insults.
Gastric Mucus-Bicarbonate Barrier
Parietal cells:
• They secret HCl into the stomach lumen where it
establishes an extremely acidic environment.

• This acid is important for activation of pepsinogen and

inactivation of ingested microorganisms such as bacteria.

• It also secrets the intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein

secreted by parietal cells that is necessary for intestinal
absorption of vitamin B12.
Chief cells:
• They secret pepsinogen(zymogen). Once secreted, pepsinogen is
activated by stomach acid into the active protease pepsin, which is
largely responsible for the stomach's ability to initiate digestion of
proteins.

• In young animals, chief cells also secrete rennin a protease that

helps coagulate milk allowing it to be retained more than briefly in
the stomach

• The epithelium cells also produce important hormones gastrin a

peptide that is important in control of acid secretion and gastric
motility and somatostatin.
Exocrine gland cells of gastric pits
Produce alkaline
mucus that covers
mucosa layer

Synthesize and secrete

the protease precursor
known as pepsinogen.

Synthesize and secrete

the HCl acid
responsible for the
acidic pH in the gastric
lumen.
 Secretion of hydrochloric acid
When parietal cells are stimulated, their secretion may have a pH as
low as 0.9 i.e., a concentration of H+ is five million times higher than
that of blood. In dogs pH between 2.0 to 2.5 is common in stomach
containing food.
Function(s) of hydrochloric acids:
i. Activation of inactive zymogen pepsinogen to active pepsin

ii. Acidification of the stomach contents, enabling pepsin to

exert its proteolytic effect in the digestion of protein).
iii. Prevention of fermentation through killing of
microorganism which enters the stomach with the food.
iv. Degradation of connective tissue and muscle tissue so that
large chunks food is reduced to smaller particles.
v. Stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice and bile.
HCl Production
 Parietal cells secrete H+ into gastric lumen by primary active
transport, through H+/ K+ ATPase pump.
 Parietal cell’s basolateral membrane takes in Cl - against its
electrochemical gradient, by coupling its transport with HC03-
Hydrochloric acid production
1. CO2 and Cl- diffuse from the
blood into the stomach cell.
2. CO2 combines with H2O to
form H2CO3.
3. H2CO3 dissociates into
bicarbonate (HCO3-) and H+.
4. H+ combines with Cl- in duct
of gastric gland to form HCl-.
5. An ATP pump is necessary to
pump the HCl into the duct
since the concentration of HCl
is about a million times more
concentrated in the duct than
in the cytosol of the cell.
Composition and function of gastric secretions
1. HCl
Converts pepsinogen to pepsin for chemical digestion
 Provides optimal pH environment for pepsin
 Destroys some bacteria
 Stimulates the small intestinal mucosa to release secretin and CCK
 Promotes the absorption of Ca2+ and Fe2+ in small intestine

2. Pepsinogen (precursor of pepsin)-digestion of proteins

3. Mucus- forms a protective barrier: Mucus-bicarbonate barrier

4. Intrinsic factor - combines with vitamin B12 to make it absorbable

binds B12 vitamin, absorption in the ileum and the only
indispensable substance in gastric juice
Stimulation for gastric secretion
1. Parasympathetic impulses from the medulla via the vagus nerve
promote peristalsis and stimulate gastric glands to secrete.

2. Sight, smell, taste, and thought- stimulate gastric secretions by

activating parasympathetic nerves originating in the cerebral
cortex.

3. Stretching of the stomach by food stimulates receptors in the

wall of the stomach that send impulses to the medulla and back
to the stomach.

4. Partially digested protein, caffeine, and a high pH of the chyme

stimulates the release of gastrin (a hormone that stimulates the
secretion of gastric juices, increases peristalsis, and relaxes the
pyloric sphincter.
Regulation of gastric secretions
Inhibition is controlled by sympathetic neural impulses and
intestinal hormones:
Control of sympathetic system:
 the presence of food in the small intestine causes the inhibition
of the parasympathetic system and the stimulation of the
sympathetic system.
 Negative emotions also stimulates the sympathetic system.
Regulation of gastric secretion
 Neural and hormonal mechanisms regulate the release of gastric
juice.

 Stimulatory and inhibitory events occur in three phases:

1. Cephalic (reflex) phase: prior to food entry.
2. Gastric phase: once food enters the stomach.
3. Intestinal phase: as partially digested food enters the
duodenum .
Phase 1: Cephalic phase
 Reflex phase that occurs before food enters stomach
 Several minutes in duration
 Excitatory events include:
 Sight, smell, taste or thought of food
 Stimulation of taste or smell receptors relays signals to the
hypothalamus which stimulates the vagal nuclei of the medulla
oblongata causing motor impulses to be transmitted via the
vagus nerve to parasympathetic enteric ganglion which
stimulate stomach glands

 Inhibitory events include:

 Loss of appetite or depression
 Decrease in stimulation of the parasympathetic division

• Continues into the 1st 30 min. of a meal.

 Phase 2: Gastric phase
Once food reaches the stomach and took several hours in
duration
Excitatory events include:
1. Stomach distension
2. Activation of stretch receptors (neural activation)
3. Chemical nature of chyme (amino acids and short
polypeptides).
 Stimulates G cells to secrete gastrin.
 Stimulates chief cells to secrete pepsinogen.
 Stimulates enterochromaffin-like cell (ECL cells) to secrete histamine-
which stimulates secretin of HCl.
Phase 2: Gastric phase cont’
4. Activation of chemoreceptors by peptides, caffeine, and rising pH
All of these initiate both local reflexes and long vagal reflexes resulting
in ACh release causing…
5. Release of gastrin to the blood and increase in HCl production in
the stomach

 Inhibitory events include:

1.A pH lower than 2
2.Emotional upset that overrides the parasympathetic division
 B. Functional phases of gastric secretion

1. Cephalic Phase of Gastric 2. Gastric Phase of Gastric

Secretion (approx. 30% of Secretion (approx 60%
total) of total)
(initiated by brain) (initiated by gastric events)
vagus
nerve
vagus
nerve
FOOD

HCl HCl
Distension
Peptides

circulation circulation
G G
gastrin gastrin
 Intragastric pH after a meal

Stomach – somatostatin
Inhibition of
Duodenum – secretin, hyperosmotic
chyme and fatty acids acid secretion
Phase 3: Intestinal phase
 Excitatory phase – low pH; partially digested food enters the
duodenum of the small intestine stimulating intestinal mucosal
cells to release hormones that mimic gastrin (intestinal gastrin)

 Inhibitory phase – distension of duodenum, presence of fatty,

acidic, or hypertonic chyme, and/or irritants in the duodenum
initiates the enterogastric reflex:
1) Initiates inhibition of local reflexes
2) Inhibition of vagal nuclei in the medulla
3) Activate sympathetic fibers constricting the pyloric sphincter
preventing entry into the s. intestine

Thus, gastric secretory activity stops protecting the small

intestine from excess acid
Summary of gastric secretion regulation
Hormones involved in regulation of gastric
secretions
1.Cholecystokinin (CCK) - secretion is stimulated by partially
digested proteins (amino acids) and triglycerides (fatty acids).
a)Inhibits gastric motility and secretion -inhibits gastric emptying, stimulates
b)Stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to increase secretion of pancreatic enzymes
c)Causes contraction of gallbladder causes the ejection of bile from the gallbladder
d)Along with secretin, is trophic to exocrine pancreas
e)Implicated in long-term adaptive changes in proportion of pancreatic enzymes in
response to prolonged diet changes
f)Important regulator of food intake induces a feeling of satiety (feeling of
satisfaction or fullness).
Hormones involved in regulation of gastric
secretions
2. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)- secretion of GIP from the
intestinal mucosa is stimulated by fatty acids and glucose in the
small intestine.
i. GIP - inhibits gastric secretion and slows down gastric emptying.
ii. It also stimulates the release of insulin by the pancreas.
iii. GIP is to induce insulin secretion, which is stimulated primarily
by hyperosmolarity of glucose in the duodenum
Regulation of gastric secretions(continued

3. Secretin- secretion is stimulated by acid chyme that enters the

small intestine.
- It inhibits secretion of gastric juice and stimulates secretion of
pancreatic juices that are rich in bicarbonate ions.
a) Presence of acid in duodenum stimulates its release
b) Inhibits gastric emptying in order to prevent further acid from
entering duodenum until acid already present is neutralized
c) Inhibits gastric secretion to reduce amount of acid being produced
d) Stimulates pancreatic duct cells to produce large volume of aqueous
NaHCO3 secretion
e) Stimulates liver to secrete NaCO3 rich bile which assists in
neutralization process
f) Along with CCK, is trophic to exocrine pancreas
Regulation of gastric secretions(continued)

4. Gastrin is a peptide hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric

acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric
motility.
• It is released by G - cells in the antrum of the stomach, duodenum,
and the pancreas.
• Its release is stimulated by peptides in the lumen of the stomach .
Other functions of gastrin hormone
 Along with the above mentioned function, gastrin has been
shown to have additional functions as well:
1. Stimulates parietal cell maturation and fundal growth.
2. Causes chief cells to secrete pepsinogen, the zymogen
(inactive) form of the digestive enzyme pepsin
3. Increases antral muscle mobility and promotes stomach
contractions.
4. Strengthens antral contractions against the pylorus, and relaxes
the pyloric sphincter, which stimulates gastric emptying.
5. Plays a role in the relaxation of the ileocaecal valve
6. Induces pancreatic secretions and gall bladder emptying.
7. Impacts lower esophageal sphincter (LES) tone, causing it to
relax
Secretion of mucus
Mucus is secreted by the neck and surface in the body and fundus of
the stomach and they are made up of glycoprotein called mucin.

Function(s) of mucus in the stomach:

Mucus is rich in bicarbonate ions that form flexible gels that coats
and lubricate the mucosa thus protects the gastric epithelium from
damage.
Proteases
These include pepsinogen. This is a zymogen (inactive precursor)
secreted by the mucous and the chief cells of the body of the
stomach.
Once secreted, pepsinogen is activated to active pepsin by the
hydrochloric acid for initiation of protein digestion by breaking the
peptide linkages adjacent to aromatic amino acids.

In young animals chief cells secrete chymosin (rennin), a protease

that coagulates milk protein allowing it to be retained more than
briefly on the stomach.
Pepsinogen is produced and stored in inactive form to prevent
from destroying the cells which it is produced.
Response of the Stomach to Filling
Stomach pressure remains constant until about 1L of food
is ingested
Relative unchanging pressure results from reflex-mediated
muscle relaxation
Gastric contractile activity
 Peristaltic waves begin at the gastroesophogeal sphincter and
move toward the pylorus at the rate of 3 per minute
 Contractions become more powerful approaching the pylorus
region (not much going on at the fundus or body)
 Pyloric valve acts as a filter letting only liquid and small
particles to pass. Retropulsion: back and forth mixing
Gastric contractile activity
 Basic electrical rhythm (BER) is initiated by pacemaker cells in
the longitudinal smooth muscle layer
 Muscle-like noncontractile cells depolarize and repolarize
spontaneously 3x/min.
 Coupled to smooth muscle cells via gap junctions
 Depolarization is brought to threshold by neural and hormonal
factors, the same factors that enhance gastric secretory
activity
E.g. stretch receptors & gastrin secreting cells
Regulation of gastric emptying
 Stomach empties w/i 4hrs after a meal
 Gastric emptying is regulated by:
 The neural enterogastric reflex
 Hormonal (enterogastrone) mechanisms

 These mechanisms inhibit gastric secretion and duodenal filling

 The rate of gastric emptying depends more on the contents of

the duodenum than those of the stomach
 Carbohydrate-rich chyme quickly moves through the
duodenum
 Fat-laden chyme is digested more slowly causing food to
remain in the stomach longer
Regulation of gastric emptying
SMALL INTESTINE
 Important digestive and
absorptive functions
Secretions and buffers
provided by pancreas, liver,
gall bladder
 Three subdivisions:
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
 Ileocecal sphincter - transition
between small and large
intestine
Small Intestine
 Structural modifications of the small intestine wall increase
surface area
 Plicae circulares: deep circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa
 Villi – fingerlike extensions of the mucosa
 Microvilli – tiny projections of absorptive mucosal cells’ plasma
membranes
Small intestine
 The epithelium of the mucosa is made up of:
a) Absorptive cells and goblet cells
b) Enteroendocrine cells
c) Interspersed T cells called intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs)
 Cells of intestinal crypts secrete intestinal juice
a) Secreted in response to distension or irritation of the mucosa
b) Slightly alkaline and isotonic with blood plasma
c) Largely water, enzyme-poor, but contains mucus
Small intestine accessory organs - The pancreas
 Bile duct
from liver
Stomach

Duodenum
Hormones
(insulin,
glucagon)
Blood

Duct cells Acinar cells Endocrine portion

secrete aqueous secrete digestive of pancreas
NaHCO3 solution enzymes (islets of Langerhans)

Exocrine portion of pancreas The glandular portions of

(acinar and duct cells) the pancreas are grossly
exaggerated.
The pancreas (pancreatic juice)
•Accessory digestive organ
• Location
Lies deep to the greater curvature of
the stomach
The head is encircled by the
duodenum and the tail abuts the spleen
• Exocrine function
Secretes pancreatic juice which
breaks down all categories of
foodstuff
Acini (clusters of secretory cells)
contain zymogen granules with
digestive enzymes
The pancreas
 Exocrine pancreas; this is made up of a large amount of lobules,
which in turn are made up of small alveoli.

 Secretory cells line the walls. This works in conjunction with

the duodenum.
 Its main function is to produce pancreatic juice that contains
the enzymes which help digest carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.

 Endocrine pancreas; the function of this is to secrete hormones,

insulin and glycogen, the main bodies responsible for the blood
glucose levels.
Pancreatic juice pH of 8.0: helps neutralize acidic
chyme

Proteases made by the pancreas

become active in the duodenum
(prevents self-digestion)

Figure 23.27
Composition of pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice contains numerous things, such as;
1.Mineral salts; (sodium hydrogen carbonate) these help the
intestinal enzymes to operate efficiently by neutralizing the acid
chime in the stomach, thus keeping the pH at a neutral balance.
2.Pancreatic amylase; this begins in the mouth; it completes the
hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
3.Proteases; Inclusive of trypsinogen, when activated forms
endopeptidase called trypsis, chymotrypsinogen in chymotrypsin,
Carboxypeptidase converts peptides into smaller peptides, or even
amino acids.
4.4. Lipase; lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and
monoglycerides, again by hydrolysis.
5.Nuclease; converts nucleic acids into nucleotides.
 Function(s) of the pancreatic juice
1. In addition to the importance of pancreas for the function of
small intestine, its large production of buffered liquid helps to
maintain stable conditions for digestion in the colon /caecum in
certain species such as horse and pigs.

2. The pancreas produces enzymes that can break down lipids,

carbohydrates and proteins.
 Lipase degrades fat into to its building block glycerol and fatty
acids,
 Amylase degrades starch to maltose, and proteases degrade
proteins to peptides and amino acids.

3. Enzymes from the pancreas in carnivores and omnivores are able

to digest the nutrients in the food almost completely in the
absence of other digestive enzymes.
 Things to note
 The secretion of pancreatic juice increases in connection with feeding in most
domestic animals.
 This increase is primarily mediated by hormonal stimulation of the gland
cells.
 A certain increase occurs already during the cephalic and gastric phases of
digestion. In most animal species, it is only enzyme production that increases
during the digestive phase.
 In pigs and horse, however, there is considerable increase in secretion of water
and ions as well.
 The increase in secretion is due to augmented activity in the vagal fiber to the
gland, as well as to increased secretion of gastrin.
Regulation of pancreatic secretion
 Secretin is produced in the S cells of the duodenum in the
crypts of Lieberkühn.
 Secretin and CCK are released when fatty or acidic chyme enters
the duodenum
 CCK and secretin enter the bloodstream

 Upon reaching the pancreas:

 CCK induces the secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
 Secretin causes secretion of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice

 Vagal stimulation also causes release of pancreatic juice

Regulation of pancreatic secretion
 Small intestine accessory organ - The liver
 Liver
 The largest gland in the body-represents about 3% of the body
weight
 Performs metabolic and hematological regulation and produces
bile
 Histological organization
 Lobules containing single-cell thick plates of hepatocytes
 Lobules unite to form common hepatic duct
 Duct meets cystic duct to form common bile duct

 Has both digestive and non digestive functions.

 Its primary digestive function is synthesis and secretion of bile,
an emulsifier of fats.
The liver
The Liver
 Hexagonal-shaped liver lobules
are the structural and functional
units of the liver
 Composed of hepatocytes
 Hepatocytes’ functions include:
1. Production of bile
2. Processing bloodborne
nutrients
3. Storage of fat-soluble
vitamins
4. Detoxification
 Secreted bile flows between
hepatocytes toward the bile ducts
in the portal triads
Composition of bile
A yellow-green, alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile
pigments, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, drug
metabolites and some electrolytes

Bile salts are cholesterol derivatives that:

1. Emulsify fat
2. Facilitate fat and cholesterol absorption
3. Help solubilize cholesterol

Enterohepatic circulation recycles bile salts

The chief bile pigment is bilirubin, a waste product of heme

Bile
 Bile is a yellowish greenish an alkaline electrolyte solution
resemble pancreatic juice.
 Bile contains
a) bile salts (sodium and potassium salts)
b) bile pigment (bilirubin and biliverdin) responsible for the golden
yellowish color of the bile.
c) bile acids (responsible for digestion and absorption of fats)
d) other products like neutral fats, cholesterol, phospholipids.

 Bile contains bile acids, which are critical for digestion and
absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine.

 Many waste products, including bilirubin, are eliminated from the

body by secretion into bile and elimination in feces.
 Bile secretion occur into two stages:
Initially bile is secreted by the liver hepatocytes, this initial
secretion contain large amount of bile acids, cholesterol and
other organic constituents, secreted into the minute bile
cannaliculi that lie between the hepatic cells in the hepatic
plates.

The flows towards the interlobular septa, and cannaliculi empty

into the terminal bile duct, to the progressive larger ducts and
finally reach the hepatic duct and the common bile duct.

 From here bile is either emptied into the duodenum or is

diverted through the cystic duct to the gall bladder where
storage occur.
 Note that as bile flow through the bile duct additional water,
sodium and bicarbonate rich secretion occur from the ductal
epithelial cells, thus increasing the quantity of bile as much as
addition of 100%.

 Also secondary secretion is stimulated by secretin hormone , thus

causing increased quantities of bicarbonate ions that supplement
the pancreatic secretions in neutralizing acid from the stomach .
 Storage of bile in gall bladder
 As bile secreted continuously from the liver is stored in the gall
bladder until needed in the duodenum.
 In species with gall bladder (man and most domestic animals with
the exceptional of horse and rats) further modification occur in the
organ.
 The gall bladder stores and concentrates bile up to 12 to 20 folds
(the normal value of concentration is about 5 folds). This is because
water, sodium, chloride and other small electrolytes are continually
absorbed from the gall bladder mucosa.
 Thus concentrating other bile constituents, including bile salts,
cholesterol, lethicin and bilirubin. Most of this absorption is through
active sodium transport through the gall bladder epithelium.
The gallbladder
 Thin-walled, green muscular sac on the ventral surface of the liver
 Stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its water and ions
 Releases bile via the cystic duct, which flows into the bile duct
Role of bile acids in cholesterol homeostasis
 Hepatic synthesis of bile acids account for the majority of
cholesterol breakdown in the body.

 In humans, roughly 500mg of cholesterol is converted to bile

acids and eliminated in the bile every day.

 This route of cholesterol elimination is very important in all

animals, but particularly in situations of massive cholesterol
ingestion
Entero hepatic circulation
 Enterohepatic circulation refers to the circulation of biliary
acids , salts and other substances from the liver, where they are
produced and secreted in the bile, to the small intestine, where it
aids in digestion of fats and other substances, back to the liver
 Approximately 94% of bile salts are reabsorbed by an active
transport process through the intestinal mucosa in the distal ileum.
 They enter the portal blood to the liver.

 On reaching the liver the bile salts are totally absorbed through the
venous sinusoids into the hepatic cells and the resecreted into the
bile.
 The small amount is lost into the feces and is replaced by new
amount formed continually by liver cells.
Enterohepatic circulation
 This recirculation of bile salts is called enterohepatic circulation.

 Once released , it stimulate the movement /contractions of the

gall bladder which causes relaxation of sphincter of oddi that
guard the exit of bile duct into the duodenum., resulting in
delivery of bile into the gut.

 By far the also the most potent stimuli for secretion of

pancreatic enzymes from the acinar cells of the pancreas.
Enterohepatic circulation
Bilirubin
 Bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver by the
enzyme glucuronyltransferase, making it soluble in water.

 Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine.

 However 95% of the secreted bile is reabsorbed by the small

intestine.
 This bile is then resecreted by the liver into the small intestine.
 About half of the conjugated bilirubin remaining in the large
intestine (about 5% of what was originally secreted) is metabolised
by colonic bacteria to urobillinogen, which is then further oxidized
to urobilin and stercobilin.
 Urobilin, stercobilin and their degradation products give feces its
brown color.
Bilirubin
 However, just like bile, some of the urobilinogen is reabsorbed,
and 95% of what is reabsorbed is resecreted in the bile which is
also part of enterohepatic circulation.

 A small amount of the reabsorbed urobilinogen(about 5%) is

excreted in the urine where it is converted to an oxidized form,
urobilin, which gives urine its characteristic yellow color.

 This whole process results in only 1-20% of secreted bile being

lost in the feces. The amount lost depends on the secretion rate of
bile.
Regulation of bile release
Cholecystokinin: The name of this hormone describes its effect on
the biliary system - cholecysto = gallbladder and kinin =
movement
1.Acidic, fatty chyme causes the duodenum to release:
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin into the bloodstream

2.Bile salts and secretin transported in blood stimulate the liver to

produce bile
3.Vagal stimulation causes weak contractions of the gallbladder

4.Cholecystokinin causes:
 The gallbladder to contract
 The hepato-pancreatic sphincter to relax

5.As a result, bile enters the duodenum

Regulation of bile release
 Secretin – this hormone is secreted in response to acid in the
duodenum.
 Its effect is similar to that seen in pancreatic secretion whereby this
increases the secretion of bicarbonate rich watery fluid by the
ductules epithelial cells of the bile ductules

 thus, increasing the volume of the bile and its flow out into the
intestine
Regulation of bile release
 Acid in Fat and protein
duodenal products in
lumen duodenal lumen

Secretin release CCK release

from duodenal from duodenal
mucosa mucosa
(CCK
(secretin Neutralizes
carried Digests
carried
by blood)
+ by blood) +
Pancreatic duct Pancreatic acinar
cells cells

Secretion of
Secretion of aqueous
pancreatic digestive
NaHCO3 solution into
enzymes into
duodenal lumen
duodenal lumen
 Gall stones
 Bile salts are formed in the hepatic cells from cholesterol and in
the process of secreting the bile about one tenth as much
cholesterol is also secreted into the bile.

 Cholesterol is almost insoluble in pure water, but the bile salts and
the lecithins in the bile combine to form micelles that are soluble.

 As bile become concentrated in the gall bladder, the bile salts and
lecithins become concentrated along with the cholesterol, which
keep the cholesterol in a solution.
 Under abnormal conditions cholesterol, precipitates resulting in the
formation of cholesterol gall stones.
 Conditions which can cause cholesterol precipitation include;
1. Too much absorption of water from bile.
2. Too much absorption of bile salts and lecithins from the bile.
3. Too much secretion of cholesterol in the bile.
4. Inflammation of gall bladder epithelium due to low grade infection;
this allow excessive absorption of water, bile salts and others
substance to keep the cholesterol in solution to precipitate forming
small crystals.

 The amount of cholesterol in the diet determines partly the quantity of

fat that a person eats, for the hepatic cells synthesized cholesterol as one
of the product of fat metabolism in the body. For this reason a person
on a high fat diet over a period of time are prone to the development of
gallstone.
Small intestine secretions
 In the mucosa of the small intestine there are mucous gland cells located on
the upper part of the duodenum, these glands are called Brunner's glands.

 These glands secrete mucus in response to

 Tactile or irritation stimuli of the overlaying mucosa
 Vagal stimulation which causes increased secretion occur concurrent with
increased gastric secretion.
 Gastrointestinal hormones especially secretin.

 Brunner secretions are to protect the duodenal wall from secretion of

gastric juice.
 On the entire surface of the small intestine there are pits called crypts of
lieberkuhn these pits secrete almost pure extracellular fluid and have slight
pH of 7.5 to 8.0
 These fluids are rapidly supplies a watery vehicle for absorption
of substances from chyme as it comes in contact with the villi.
Large intestine
 Is subdivided into the cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal
canal
 1.5 m in length
 Primary function is to absorb H2O from indigestable food
residues, temporarily store them, and finally excrete them
 No breakdown of foodstuff occurs in the Large intestine
 The saclike cecum:
Lies below the ileocecal valve in the right iliac fossa
Contains a wormlike vermiform appendix
Large Intestine
Large intestine: microscopic anatomy
 Contains no villi and no cells that secrete digestive enzymes
 Colon mucosa is simple columnar epithelium except in the anal canal
 Has numerous deep crypts lined with goblet cells- mucus
 Abundant supply of mucus eases the passage of feces and protects
the colon against acids and gases released by resident bacteria
 Protect and lubricatethe mucosa intestinal from trauma

• Its major functions include

1. absorption of water
2. absorption of vitamins (B and K) produced by bacteria
3. storage of fecal material prior to defecation


I have finally cum to the konklusion
that a reliable set ov bowels iz worth
more to a man than enny quantity of
brains.
Josh Billings