Liquid Penetrant Testing

Part 1

Introduction to Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Nondestructive Testing Methods
Nondestructive testing methods are
used for the following reasons.

1. To ensure product integrity and

reliability.
2. To avoid test object failure, prevent
accidents and save lives.
3. To ensure customer satisfaction
 Nondestructive Testing Methods

4. To aid in better product design.

5. To lower manufacturers’ costs.
6. To maintain uniform quality levels.
History of Liquid Penetrant Testing

1. Liquid penetrant testing is one of

the oldest methods of
nondestructive testing.
2. The origin of liquid penetrant
testing is generally attributed to
the inspection of wheel axles in
the railroad industry in the 1890s.
History of Liquid Penetrant Testing

3. The oil-and-whiting test involves

immersing test objects in oil and
then wiping with rags dampened
with kerosene. Powdered chalk
was used to dust the surface to
increase the visibility of any oil
leaking back onto the test object
surface.
Reasons for Selecting Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Some advantages of liquid penetrant
testing include the following.

1. Liquid penetrant testing quickly

examines all accessible surfaces.
2. Liquid penetrant testing detects
very small surface discontinuities.
Reasons for Selecting Liquid
Penetrant Testing
3. It can be used on a wide variety of
materials including ferrous and
nonferrous metals and alloys and
fired ceramics.
4. It uses relatively inexpensive and
nonsophisticated equipment.
5. Sensitivity magnifies size and
location of discontinuities.
Reasons for Selecting Liquid
Penetrant Testing
6. Sensitivity can be adjusted by
selection of penetrant, removal
technique and type of developer.
7. Technicians can visually detect
indications.
8. Liquid penetrant testing can be used
for in-service checks to resolve
production problems early.
 Basic Processing of a Liquid
Penetrant Testing
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most
critical steps of a liquid penetrant
inspection. The surface must be free of
oil, grease, water, or other contaminants
that may prevent penetrant from entering
flaws.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the
surface has been thoroughly cleaned
and dried, the penetrant material is
applied by spraying, brushing, or
immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.
 Basic Processing of a Liquid
Penetrant Testing
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for sufficient time
to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into
a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in
contact with the part surface. Minimum dwell times typically range from
5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant
dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry.
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the
inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed
from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects.
 Basic Processing of a Liquid
Penetrant Testing
5. Developer Application: A thin layer of
developer is then applied to the sample to
draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to
the surface where it will be visible.
Developers come in a variety of forms that
may be applied by dusting (dry powdered),
dipping, or spraying (wet developers).
6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the
part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.
 Basic Processing of a Liquid
Penetrant Testing
7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting
to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the
part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to
be acceptable.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Primary Advantages
 The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
 The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic,
magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials
may be inspected.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly
and at low cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a
visual representation of the flaw.
 Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Primary Disadvantages
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Pre-cleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must
be removed prior to LPI.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Availability of Liquid Penetrant
There are three basic classification
types by dye.

1. Type I: Fluorescent penetrant.

2. Type II: Visible penetrant (color
contrast).
3. Type III: Dual mode (visible/
fluorescent).
 Type I Fluorescent
Type 1 fluorescent is further classified
by five sensitivity levels as follows.

1. Level 1/2: Ultra low.

2. Level 1: Low.
3. Level 2: Medium.
4. Level 3: High.
5. Level 4: Ultra high.
 Type II Visible

There is no sensitivity level

classification for Type II penetrant
systems.
 Method of Removal
Type I and II are further classified by
method of removal of excess penetrant.

1. Method A: Water washable.

2. Method B: Lipophilic
postemulsifiable.
3. Method C: Solvent removable.
4. Method D: Hydrophilic
postemulsifiable.
 Developer Forms

Developers are classified as forms.

1. Form A: Dry powder.
2. Form B: Water soluble.
3. Form C: Water suspendible.
4. Form D: Nonaqueous Type I
(fluorescent).
 Developer Forms

5. Form E: Nonaqueous Type II

(visible dye).
6. Form F: Special applications.
 Solvent Classes

Solvents are divided into classes.

1. Class 1: Halogenated.
2. Class 2: Nonhalogenated.
3. Class 3: Special applications.
Health & Safety Precautions: Fire
1. Materials are usually combustible.
2. Cleaning solvents are flammable and the accumulation
of it’s vapor may cause fire hazards.
3. Penetrant Testing should not be carried out in confined
spaces, unless adequate ventilation is provided.
4. Minimum flash point on open tanks is usually 93 °C (200
°F).
5. Smoking and open flames should be avoided.
6. Storage should be away from heat and open flames.
 Health & Safety Precautions: Fire
Always review the Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS) for precautions.

General Safety Precautions:

Adequate lighting, sufficient cleaning and access
to equipment and materials should always be
observed.
 Skin Irritation
1. Drying action can occur on skin
from oil bases.
2. Avoid splashing of materials.
3. Wear protective gloves, aprons
and glasses.
4. Wash hands immediately when in
contact with penetrant materials.
5. Use protective hand creams.
 Air Pollution
1. Dust and vapors can be toxic.
2. Inhalation of excessive amounts
can be a health hazard.
3. Exhaust fans should be installed for
the use of dry developers.
4. Fans should be used in test areas
to remove vapors.
5. Always follow recommendations for
respirator or face mask use.
 Electrical Safety
1. Electrical equipment and
connections should be thoroughly
inspected that there will be no
danger of fire as a result of any
overheating or sparking.
2. A fire extinguisher suitable for
petrol, gas and electrical fires
should accompany the use of
electrical equipment in Penetrant
Testing area.
Ultraviolet Radiation (Black Light)
1. 365 nm ultraviolet radiation
causes fluorescence of penetrant
material.
2. Higher frequencies are harmful
to humans.
3. UV-A lamps should always be
maintained in good condition.
4. Avoid direct viewing of the UV
source.
 Ultraviolet Radiation (Black Light)
5. Ultraviolet lamp filters are used to prevent
these harmful rays from harming humans.
6. Filters should be inspected and checked
periodically for cracks and replaced as
necessary.
7. Protective lenses or goggles should be used.
8. Avoid skin contact with the UV source casing
as it gets too hot.
 Part 2

Liquid Penetrant Processing

Procedures and Techniques

1. Procedures can be broad and

cover several specific
techniques.
2. Each procedure and technique
should be approved and signed
by a certified Level III.
Precleaning of Test Objects
Cleaning processes include the
following.
1. Solvent.
2. Detergents.
3. Vapor degreasing.
4. Steam cleaning.
Precleaning of Test Objects

5. Ultrasonics.
6. Chemical.
7. Paint strippers.
Precleaning of Test Objects
All cleaning methods must meet the
following requirements.

1. Local environmental
requirements.
2. Health and safety requirements.
3. Cause no harm to the test object.
Precleaning of Test Objects

4. Substrate should be wiped clean

with an approved solvent
cleaner.
5. Solvent cleaner should be
allowed to dry completely before
application of penetrant.
Preparation of Test Objects

1. The surface properties of the test

object determine surface
preparation.
2. High nickel alloys, titaniums and
stainless steels require the use of
low sulfur and chloride products.
Preparation of Test Objects

3. Surfaces need to be free of foreign

materials which block open
discontinuities.
4. Cleaning operations such as power
wire brushing, grit blasting, shot
peening and other metal smearing
operations should be avoided.
Precleaning and Postcleaning

1. Liquid penetrant test will be

ineffective if substrate is not
physically and chemically cleaned
and dried.
2. Liquid penetrant residue may have
a harmful effect on test objects if not
properly removed before placing it
in service.
Precleaning and Postcleaning

3. The compatibility of cleaning

agents and penetrant materials
should be verified to ensure an
acceptable penetrant test.
 Solvent Cleaning

1. The application of solvent

cleaning may be immersion,
sprayed, brushed or wiped.
2. Solvent cleaning is commonly
used for spot inspections.
 Solvent Cleaning

3. Solvent cleaners must evaporate

readily and completely from the
substrate.
4. Solvent cleaners should be used
to remove organic contaminants
only.
Solvent Cleaning

Test object
being cleaned
with a solvent-
damped, lint-
free cloth prior
to application
of penetrant.
Detergent Cleaning
Cleaning is accomplished by the use
of immersion tanks and or detergent
solutions. Cleaning is accomplished
as follows.

1. Detergents wet the substrate.

2. Penetrates various soils.
3. Emulsification.
4. Saponification (change to soap).
5. Substrate is rinsed and dried.
Detergent Cleaning Equipment

1. Suitable rinsing stations.

2. Suitable drying stations.
3. Thorough rinsing and drying after
detergent cleaning will leave the
substrate physically and chemically
clean for liquid penetrant testing.
 Vapor Degreasing
Vapor degreasing is effective for the
following procedures.

1. Removal of oils.
2. Removal of greases.
3. Removal of other similar organic
contaminations.
4. Vapor degreasing does not
require a rinse or drying (oven)
step.
 Vapor Degreasing
5. Vapor degreasing can be
hazardous to the environment.
6. Vapor degreasing safety is a large
concern due to health hazards.
7. Vapor degreasing is limited to
cleaning of substrates that have
been approved for this type of
cleaning method.
 Steam Cleaning

Precleaning with steam and alkaline

detergents provide ideal cleaning.
1. Alkaline detergent emulsifies,
softens or dissolves
organic contamination.
 Steam Cleaning

2. Steam provides mechanical action

for removal of
detergents/contaminations from the
surface of the substrate.
3. Steam cleaning is suitable for
cleaning large, unwieldy
components which are not easily
submerged.
Ultrasonic Cleaning

1. Ultrasonic cleaning is often

combined with detergent or
alkaline cleaning.
2. Combined ultrasonic cleaning
improves efficiency and reduces
cleaning time.
Ultrasonic Cleaning

3. Ultrasonic cleaning is useful for

cleaning large quantities of small
test objects.
4. Ultrasonic agitation requires
special approval on some
substrates.
Rust and Surface Scale Removal

Approved commercial rust and surface

scale removers include the following.
1. Acid rust removers.
2. Alkaline rust removers.
These require special equipment, and
specific procedures should be
followed.
 Paint Removal

Paint removal methods include the

following.
1. Dissolving hot tank paint
strippers.
2. Bond release paint strippers.
3. Solvent paint strippers.
These require special equipment, and
specific procedures should be followed.
 Etching

Acid or alkaline solutions are

used to remove smeared metal
from operations, including the
following.
1. Power wire brushing.
2. Sand blasting.
 Etching

1. Solutions open up grinding burrs

and remove smeared metals.
2. Etching and neutralization
processes use either
tanks/immersion or manual
equipment.
Precleaning Processes to be
Avoided
The following methods should
not be used before liquid
penetrant tests.
1. Blasting (shot, sand, grit,
pressure, etc.).
2. Liquid honing.
Precleaning Processes to be
Avoided
3. Emery cloth.
4. Power wire brushes.
These processes tend to close
discontinuities by smearing
metal, peening or cold working
the surface.
 Drying Test Objects

Test objects and potential

discontinuities should be completely
dry of cleaner before the application
of penetrant.

1. Any remaining cleaner may

prevent capillary action of the
penetrant into discontinuities.
Drying Test Objects

2. Some procedures require

application of isopropyl alcohol
or acetone to promote drying.
3. Drying ovens are sometimes
required.
 Dwell Time

1. Penetrant dwell time is a period

of time to allow penetrant to
enter and fill any discontinuities
open to the surface through
capillary action.
 Dwell Time
2. Liquid penetrant is drawn out of
discontinuity entrapments to the test
object surface during the so-called
development time or developer dwell
time.
3. Liquid penetrant may spread into the
developer coating to form enhanced
indications. This is sometimes
referred to as reverse capillary
action.
Application of Penetrant

Penetrant applications include

the following.
1. Spraying.
2. Brushing.
3. Pouring.
4. Dipping.
Application of Penetrant

Test surfaces should remain

wetted the entire penetrant dwell
time. Ultraviolet radiation
sources may assist when using
fluorescents.
Application of Penetrant:
Color Contrast
Application of
penetrant also
includes the HAZ,
technicians
should review
procedures to
ensure complete
coverage for area
of interest.
Application of Penetrant:
Fluorescent
Test object held in
suspension while
required dwell
time elapses for
fluorescent
process.
Adequate Illumination

1. Fluorescent rinse station

requires about 100 lux (10 ftc) of
ambient (white) light and less
than 100 W/cm2 of near
ultraviolet radiation (UV-A).
Adequate Illumination

2. Fluorescent evaluation station

should be about 1000 W/cm2 of
near ultraviolet radiation (UV-A)
as measured at the test surface,
and the ambient (white) light
should not be greater than
20 lux (2 ftc).
Adequate Illumination
3. Visible dye penetrant (color
contrast) usually requires
1000 lux (100 ftc) at the test
surface.
These levels should always be
verified against the governing
procedure, standard or
specification.
 Adequate Illumination:
Ultraviolet Radiation Meter
Typical
ultraviolet
radiation meter
used for
fluorescent
processes.
 Adequate Illumination:
Ultraviolet Radiation Meter

Typical test
fixture for
verification of
adequate
illumination at a
fixed distance
from the meter.
Adequate Illumination:
Ambient Light Meters
Illumination
meters for the
measurement of
ambient (white)
light in foot-
candles or lux.
Penetrant: Water Rinse
(Methods A, B and D)
After the required dwell/ emulsification
time, the examination area should be:
1. Water rinsed. Course droplets
are preferred, as the mechanical
action is dependent on the size
of drops and velocity at impact.
Penetrant: Water Rinse
(Methods A, B and D)

2. Applied at an oblique angle (45°

to 75° is most effective angle).
3. Normal distances of 15 to 61 cm
(6 to 24 in.) are acceptable and
provide a uniform rate of
removal.
Penetrant: Water Rinse
(Methods A, B and D)
4. Temperature ranges for rinse water
is 10 to 38 °C (50 to
100 °F).
5. Water pressure of about 69 to 241
kPa (10 to 35 psi) is generally used.
The pressure should not exceed
276 kPa
(40 psi).
Typical Water Rinse Station

Test objects being

rinsed while
viewed under a
fluorescent light to
ensure adequate
cleaning.
Solvent Removable

After required dwell time, the following

functions should be performed.
1. Wipe test area with a lint-free,
absorbent towel that has a color
contrast with the penetrant.
2. Use a clean section with each
swipe.
Solvent Removable

3. After removal of the bulk of

penetrant, lightly dampen a
clean cloth. Do not soak or
saturate the cloth with cleaner.
Continue to swipe area until no
evidence of penetrant is
observed.
Solvent Removable

4. Make a final swipe with a clean

dry cloth and verify that there is
no evidence of penetrant on the
cloth. Allow the cleaner to
evaporate before the application
of developer.
Developer Application and Drying

The basic types of developer are as

follows.
1. Form A: Dry powder (fine
powder form).
2. Form B: Water soluble (liquid
dip tanks).
Developer Application and Drying

3. Form C: Water suspendible (liquid

dip tanks).
4. Form D: Nonaqueous Type I
(aerosol spray cans).
5. Form D: Nonaqueous Type II
(aerosol spray cans).
6. Specific application developers.
Dry Powder Developer Form A

Dry powder developers are applied

to dry test object surfaces by the
following methods.
1. Air suspension.
2. Electrostatic spraying (common
in automated systems).
Dry Powder Developer Form A

3. Test object immersion.

4. The powder is light and fluffy and
clings to the test object surfaces in a
fine film.
5. Dry powder is most useful on rough
surfaces and automated processing
using fluorescent penetrants.
Water Soluble Developer Form B

Developers consist of a powder

dissolved in water and applied by the
following means.
1. Dipping a test object in the
solution.
2. Flowing the solution over a test
object.
Water Soluble Developer Form B

3. Spraying the solution onto the test

object. This type of aqueous
developer forms a translucent film.
4. Water soluble developer can be
used for fluorescent dyes.
5. Not recommended for use with
visible dye.
Water Soluble Developer Form B

6. Not recommended for use with

water washable. Water in the
developer may remove water
washable penetrant from
discontinuities.
7. Can save time during processing,
since drying is included in the
developer dwell time.
Water Soluble Developer Form B

8. Supplied as a dry concentrate that

must be mixed and maintained at the
proper ratio of developer to water.
9. Developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant
contamination and water evaporation
per approved specifications.
Water Suspendible Developer
Form C
1. Supplied as a dry concentrate that
must be mixed and maintained at
the proper ratio of developer to
water.
2. Suspended aqueous developer does
not dissolve in water so it must be
thoroughly agitated just before
application to suspend the particles
in water.
Water Suspendible Developer
Form C
3. Development of indications does
not begin until the moisture is
completely evaporated from the
developer.
4. Thickness of the coating and its
white color work well with visible
dyes.
Water Suspendible Developer
Form C
5. Test objects should be checked to
ensure a uniform coating of
developer has been applied.
6. Developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant
contamination and water
evaporation per approved
specifications with a hydrometer.
Water Suspendible Developer
Form C
7. Removal of dried suspendible
developers may be more difficult
because they are not soluble in
water.
8. All aqueous developers necessarily
contain biocides, corrosion
inhibitors and wetting agents.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I and II
1. Nonaqueous (solvent
suspendible) developers are
supplied in the ready-to-use
condition, frequently in aerosol
cans.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I and II
2. Nonaqueous developer is the most
sensitive form of developer
because the solvent action
contributes to the absorption and
adsorption mechanisms of the
developer by entering the
discontinuity and dissolving into
the liquid penetrant.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I and II
a. Adsorption is the surrounding of
the developer particles by
adhesion, which coats the surface
of the particles.
b. Absorption is the assimilation of
penetrant into the bulk of the
particles.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I and II
Prior to spraying of developer, the
following procedures should be
followed.
1. Aerosol can requires agitation
before spraying.
2. The test object must be
thoroughly dry.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I and II
3. Several thin, uniform coats are
preferred over one heavy coat.
4. A check spray should be
performed before spraying the
test surface to prevent spattering
of the developer.
Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)
Type I & II

Visible
fluorescent
portable kit.
Development/Dwell Time

1. The development of indications

does not begin until the moisture
is completely evaporated from the
developer.
2. The test object must be monitored
very closely during the developer
dwell time to properly evaluate
the indications as they form.
Development/Dwell Time

3. Typically, the developer dwell time

is a minimum of 10 min. Always
reference the specifications.
4. The point at which the developer
dwell time begins depends on the
type of developer being used.
Development/Dwell Time

5. Wet developer dwell time begins

as soon as the developer is dry.
6. Dry and nonaqueous developer
dwell times begin at application.
Interpretation and Evaluation

1. Interpretation: The determination

of whether indications are
relevant or nonrelevant.
2. Evaluation: A review, following
interpretation of the indications
noted, to determine whether they
meet specified acceptance
criteria.
Types of Indications

Indications form on the surface of

test objects during examinations
because of discontinuities located on
the surfaces. They may be classified
as the following.
1. False indications.
2. Nonrelevant indications.
Types of Indications

3. Relevant indications.
a. Linear indications are those
which contain a major
dimension at least three times
the minor dimension.
b. Round indications are those
whose major dimension is less
than three times the minor
dimension.
Types of Indications

This is a general rule of thumb.

Refer to the specification or
procedure.
 Discontinuities
1. A discontinuity is an interruption in
the normal structure of the test
object. It may not be a defect.
2. If, during the evaluation phase, it is
determined that the discontinuity
interferes with the serviceability of
the test object or it does not meet the
acceptance criteria, the discontinuity
is then classified as a defect.
 False Indications

1. A nondestructive testing indication that

is interpreted to be caused by a
discontinuity at a location where no
discontinuity exists.
2. False indications are nonrelevant.
3. In some reference documents, false
indications and nonrelevant indications
are considered to be the same thing.
 False Indications

False indications are caused by the

following reasons.
1. Lack of cleanliness by poor
processing conditions.
2. Lack of cleanliness in the
testing booth or other aspects
of the penetrant process.
 False Indications

3. Penetrant on the hands of

technicians.
4. Contamination of wet or dry
developer.
5. Penetrant from other test objects.
6. Penetrant on examination table.
7. Fluorescent specks or particles.
 False Indications

Cleaning and reprocessing a test

object is required when false
indications are noted.
1. A typical false indication is a
piece of lint on a part that
resembles a crack during
ultraviolet radiation testing.
 False Indications

2. The most serious problem with false

indications is determining whether the
indication is masking a relevant
indication.
 Typical False Indication
Patch from
Marks from contact with
handling tool another test
object

Fingerprints
left by
technician
Lint and dirt
Nonrelevant Indications

Nonrelevant indications are

caused by surface irregularities
or test object configuration and
are not detrimental to the
serviceability of the test object.
They may appear on test objects
at the following locations.
Nonrelevant Indications

1. Press fitted joints.

2. Riveted connections.
3. Spot welds.
4. Substrates with rough surfaces.
Relevant Indications

1. Relevant indications are those

that are caused by
discontinuities on the surface of
a test object.
2. All relevant indications are
discontinuities, but not all
discontinuities are defects.
Relevant Indications

Relevant indications are classified as:

1. Continuous line indications.
2. Intermittent line indications.
3. Round or dot indications.
Within these groups there are large,
small, weak and diffused indications.
Continuous Line Indications

Continuous line indications are

discontinuities.
1. Cracks.
2. Seams.
3. Cold shuts.
4. Forging laps.
Continuous Line Indications

5. Continuous line indications can be

jagged, like most cracks, or very
straight, like a seam indication.
6. The degree of bleed out depends
on factors such as the width and
depth of the indication and the
penetrant and developer dwell
times.
Intermittent Line Indications
1. Intermittent line indications are
caused by the same discontinuities
as continuous line indications.
2. The difference is that these
indications have been affected by
previous processing steps,
in-service use or are partially
subsurface. Therefore, they are
not continuous lines.
Round or Dot Indications

1. Round or dot indications are

caused by porosity, pin holes, a
porous surface or a coarse grain
structure.
2. Round indications also can be
caused by crater cracks because
they tend to trap large amounts of
penetrant.
Round or Dot Indications

3. A round indication becomes a

linear indication when the length
of the indication is more than
three times the width.
 Postcleaning

Postcleaning can involve the following.

1. Vapor degreasing.
2. Solvent soak.
3. Ultrasonic cleaning.
Other postcleaning operations may be
required by specifications and
procedures.
 Part 3

Liquid Penetrant
Testing Methods
 Introduction

1. Test methods are developed for the

detection of discontinuities that are
open to the surface, such as
cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts,
laminations, through leakage or
lack of fusion.
 Introduction

2. Application of the methods are

applicable to in-process and final
manufacturing of
components, inservice tests and
maintenance activities.
 Introduction

3. The different methods can be

effectively used for the examination
of nonporous, metallic materials
(both ferrous and nonferrous) and
of nonmetallic materials such as
glazed or fully densified ceramics,
certain nonporous plastics and
glass.
 Introduction

4. Once a method has been

selected and discontinuities are
detected by evidence of
indications from the examination,
they must be interpreted or
classified and then evaluated.
 Introduction

5. Evaluation requires codes,

specifications or procedures to
define the type, size, location
and direction of indications
considered acceptable or
unacceptable.
 Introduction

6. Classification/method of penetrant
testing requires consideration of the
following.
a. Type of dye penetrant.
b. Method of removal.
c. Penetrant sensitivities.
d. Form of developer.
e. Classes of solvent removers.
 Method Characteristics:
Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible
The following factors should be
considered when choosing between
Type I fluorescent and Type II visible.
1. Availability of dark area and
power source.
2. Level of sensitivity required.
3. Type of indication sought.
Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible

4. Size and location of surface to be

examined.
5. Availability of cleaning processes.
6. Type I has five levels of
sensitivity: 1/2 ,1, 2, 3, and 4; 4
being most sensitive.
7. Type II has no sensitivity level
rating.
Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible

8. Type I is usually required

when a specific level of
sensitivity is desired.
Type I fluorescent should never
follow Type II visible. The visible dye
may quench the fluorescent dye
properties, and the visible dye may
fill the discontinuity eliminating a
fluorescent indication.
Solvent or Water Removable

1. Portable solvent or manual water

removable kits allow field testing.
2. Materials are supplied in aerosol
spray cans.
3. One technician can carry
equipment.
Solvent or Water Removable

4. Available in Type I and II

materials.
5. Aerosol cans do not require daily
calibration or contamination
checks.
Inline Penetrant Systems

1. Inline systems normally consist

of bulk penetrant materials in
tanks.
2. Type I fluorescent is usually
used.
3. Water rinse or emulsification is
used.
Inline Penetrant Systems

4. Type I, Method A is most

common. Methods B or D are
also used for inline testing.
5. Normally used for large volumes
of manufactured test objects.
The type of indication sought will
dictate method and sensitivity.
Lipophilic Emulsification

1. Method B is lipophilic (oil loving).

2. Application is done by dipping.
Agitation of the test object is
prohibited.
3. Brush-on or spray-on is not
permitted.
Lipophilic Emulsification

4. The mechanism of lipophilic is by

diffusion.
5. Emulsification time is critical and
must be carefully controlled for
reproducible results.
Hydrophilic Emulsification

1. Method D is hydrophilic (water loving).

2. Works through detergent or surfactant
reaction.
3. Prewashing removes 60 to 80% of the
surface layer of penetrant.
4. Following the prerinse, hydrophilic
emulsifier or remover is applied by
immersion or spray.
Hydrophilic Emulsification

5. Concentration by immersion is
usually 5 to 30% by volume.
6. Slight agitation is necessary to
remove the colloidal suspension
of penetrant and emulsifier from
the surface and to expose fresh
penetrant.
Hydrophilic Emulsification

7. Agitation is done by gently

moving the submerged test object
in the remover, or by an air
manifold in the bottom of the tank.
8. Only enough air to cause slight
bubbling is required.
Hydrophilic Emulsification
9. The mechanism of spray
hydrophilic emulsifier is a
combination of chemical and
mechanical action.
10. Immediately following the
remover, a fresh water rinse of the
entire test object is required. This
stops the action of any remaining
remover on the test object.
Hydrophilic Emulsification

11. Concentration of spray

removers is usually 0.5 to 1%
by volume; up to 5% may be
used.
 Part 4

Liquid Penetrant
Testing Equipment
Liquid Penetrant Testing Units

Liquid penetrant testing units can be

arranged so test objects are moved in
the following ways.
1. Manually.
2. Mechanically assisted.
3. Semiautomatic.
4. Fully automatic.
Liquid Penetrant Testing Units
The choice depends on budget, timing
and the long-term system performance.
The size of testing unit is largely
dependent on size and type of test object.
The layout of the system may take on
various designs depending on the
facilities available, production rate desired
and ease of handling test objects.
Liquid Penetrant Stations

Testing stations requirements are

dependent on the following factors.
1. Type of penetrant used.
2. Processing requirements.
3. Size of test objects.
4. Quantity/production rate desired.
Auxiliary Equipment

1. Auxiliary equipment located at

the penetrant test station (other
than cleaning stations) is
required to perform penetrant
testing.
2. Auxiliary equipment may be built
in at one or more test stations.
 Auxiliary Equipment
Ultraviolet lamp

Ultraviolet lamp
Dryer Station

Drain Station
Emulsifier Station
Test Station
Penetrant Station

Developer Station

Rinse Station

Control Panel
 Dryer Rest Station Test
Developer
Ultraviolet Station
Station
lamp

Rinse Station
Handheld sprayer
Drain Station
Penetrant
Station
 Dryer
Developer Station Test Station
White Light
Rinse Station Ultraviolet
Lamps
Drain Station

Penetrant Station

Hand hose (pump fed)

Hand hose water

Hand hose Ultraviolet Lamp

(pump fed)
 Modular Units

Stations are supplied in modular

units to allow many
configurations, such as straight
line, L or U shaped
arrangements.
Liquid Penetrant Tank with Cover
Drain and Rest Station
Wash Station
Drying Oven
Dry Developer Station
Testing Station
Multiple Component Inline Liquid
Penetrant System
Multiple Component Inline Liquid
Penetrant System
Self-Contained, Water Washable
Fluorescent Unit
Testing Station Pumps

Various pumps are installed at the

penetrant, emulsifier, rinse and developer
stations as applicable. They are required
for the following procedures.
1. Agitation of the solutions.
2. Pump drain-off material into
proper tanks for reuse or filtration
for disposal.
Testing Station Pumps

3. Used to power hand-held

sprayer and applicators.
4. Require routine maintenance to
ensure reliability.
Sprayers and Applicators

1. Sprayers and applicators are

frequently used at the penetrant,
emulsifier, rinse and developer
stations.
2. They decrease test time by
permitting rapid and even
application of penetrant materials.
Sprayers and Applicators

3. Conventional and electrostatic

sprayers are used for penetrants,
dry and suspended developers.
Electrostatic Spray Systems

Application with an electrostatic spray

system does the following.
1. Minimizes consumption of liquid
penetrant materials and
reduces pooling of penetrant.
2. Helps ensure complete even
coverage of complete surfaces.
Electrostatic Spray Systems

3. Requires penetrant material

have an electrostatic charge.
4. Suitable for parts too large for
immersion.
5. Spray systems virtually eliminate
contamination of reservoirs of
penetrant materials.
Electrostatic Spray Systems

For application with electrostatic

spray, the technician applies
fluorescent penetrant with a
hand-held spray gun that makes
atomized particles attract to test
object.
Automatic Electrostatic Spray

Two
reciprocating
electrostatic
spray guns in a
conveyorized
installation used
to apply
penetrant.
Lamps for Penetrant Stations

1. Ambient and ultraviolet radiation

lamps are installed as required to
ensure adequate illumination at
all stations.
2. When using fluorescent materials,
lamps are installed at the rinse
and inspection booths.
Lamps for Penetrant Stations

3. Illumination should be checked

with calibrated instruments as
required by procedures and
specifications at the testing area.
 Illumination Instruments

Ultraviolet Light White Light

Meter Meters
Liquid Penetrant Station Timers

Timers are used at penetrant

stations to monitor the following.
1. Penetrant dwell times.
2. Emulsifier dwell times.
3. Developer dwell time.
4. Drying cycles.
Thermostats and Thermometers

Thermostats and thermometers are

used to monitor and control
temperatures of the following.
1. Penetrant materials.
2. Drying ovens.
3. Test objects.
4. Atmosphere.
Exhaust Fans for Penetrant Stations
1. Exhaust fans are used when
testing is performed in confined
spaces.
2. Fans remove fumes and dust
particulate from the test area.
3. Prolonged breathing of penetrant
vapors, emulsifier vapors or
solvent remover vapors may
cause headaches, nausea,
tightness or pain in the chest.
Refractometer

Used to
measure the
concentration
of hydrophilic
emulsifier in
water.
 Hydrometer

A hydrometer is used to measure

specific gravity of water based
wet developers.
 Hydrometer
Ballast Stem

Scale
Body

A hydrometer floats vertically in

developer, and specific gravity is
read from scale at fluid level.
Portable Penetrant Equipment

1. For use when testing is required

at a location remote from
stationary equipment.
2. For use when small portions of a
large object require testing.
Portable Penetrant Equipment

3. Available in fluorescent and

visible dye kits which are
compact and light weight.
4. May be applied by spray from
aerosol cans or applied with a
brush.
Visible Dye Penetrant Kit

The contents of a visible dye penetrant kit

consist of the following.
1. Solvent cleaner.
2. Penetrant remover.
3. Visible penetrant.
4. Application brushes or pads.
5. Nonaqueous wet developer.
6. Lint-free wiping cloths.
Visible Dye Penetrant Kit

Typical
portable
visible dye kit.
Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

The fluorescent penetrant kit

combines portability with high visibility
and normally contains:
1. Portable ultraviolet lamp.
2. Solvent cleaner.
3. Penetrant remover.
4. Fluorescent penetrant.
Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

5. Application brushes or pads.

6. Developer, either nonaqueous wet
or dry.
7. Lint-free wiping towels.
8. Hood to provide darkened area for
viewing of indications.
Portable Fluorescent Penetrant Kit
Ultraviolet Radiation Illumination

1. Most common, hand-held ultraviolet

mercury vapor lamps will produce
light in the wavelength range of 320
to 440 nm.
2. Fluorescent penetrant dyes are
usually in the range of 475 to 575
nm, which is in the visible spectrum
of green to yellow.
Ultraviolet Radiation Illumination

3. Equipment checks should be

performed as defined in the
specification or procedure being
used for the testing.
 Lamp Filters
1. A filter that transmits near-
ultraviolet radiation while
absorbing other wavelengths.
2. The most common UV-A light
consists of a mercury bulb housed
with a filter that is powered by a
constant voltage transformer
producing wavelengths in the
range of 320 to 400 nm.
 Lamp Filters
3. The filter used in front of the high
pressure mercury vapor light has
a peak transmission at a
wavelength of 365 nm.
4. A warm-up time is required for the
mercury bulb to reach full
intensity and the light should
remain on to avoid cycling, which
reduces the life of the bulb.
 Lamp Filters

5. Regular cleaning of the bulb and

filter is required to remove dust,
oil, dirt and fluorescent
contamination that can reduce
the ultraviolet radiation intensity.
Ultraviolet Radiation Sources

Common sources of near

ultraviolet radiation include:
1. Enclosed mercury vapor arc
lamps.
2. Metal halide or halogen
lamps.
3. Integrally filtered tubular
fluorescent lamps.
Ultraviolet Radiation Sources

4. Tubular fluorescent lamps.

5. Metallic or carbon arcs.
6. Incandescent lamps.
Ultraviolet Radiation Sources
Tubular Fluorescent Cold
Discharge Sources
1. Tubular fluorescent lamps are
quite low in output and only
usable in a very few special
applications.
2. Available in sizes from 2 W to
more than 60 W input.
3. Contain low pressure mercury
vapor glow discharges.
4. Made of a purple-red filter glass.
Subdued White Light Inspection

1. Improved penetrant materials

have made it possible to test in
less than total darkness.
2. Medium to large indications can
be detected under fairly high
ambient (white) light.
Subdued White Light Inspection

3. Fluorescent testing is possible

outdoors.
4. Ambient (white) light
requirements must be met using
black cloth or other shielding.
 Light Meters

1. White light sensors measure in

foot-candles or lux.
2. Ultraviolet radiation sensors
measure in microwatts per
centimeter squared (W/cm2).
Materials for Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Materials used in liquid penetrant
testing include:
1. Penetrants.
2. Emulsifiers.
3. Removers.
4. Cleaners.
5. Developers.
Precleaning and Postcleaning

1. Materials must be compatible

with the penetrant.
2. Manufacturers will recommend
an approved cleaner for their
products.
Water Washable Penetrants

1. Highly penetrating, oily liquids

containing a built in emulsifying
agent that renders the oily media
washable with water.
2. The simplest to use are visible
penetrants or color contrast
penetrants, because no fluorescent
lighting is required.
Water Washable Penetrants

3. Greater visibility is obtained if

fluorescent penetrants are used
and viewed under ultraviolet
radiation.
Postemulsification Penetrants

1. Postemulsification penetrants
are available as either visible or
fluorescent penetrants.
2. These penetrants have the
advantage of eliminating some
of the danger of over rinsing.
 Emulsifiers

1. When applied to a postemulsification

penetrant, emulsifiers combine with
the penetrant to make the resultant
mixture water washable.
2. The emulsifier, usually dyed orange
to contrast with the penetrant, may
be either lipophilic (oil base) or
hydrophilic (detergent water base).
 Emulsifiers

Typical Emulsifier Dip Tank

Lipophilic Emulsifiers
1. They begin emulsifying on contact
with the penetrant.
2. Emulsifiers can never be applied
by brushing.
3. The mixture of penetrant and
emulsifier can be removed with a
standard water rinse.
4. Renders the penetrant water
washable.
Hydrophilic Emulsifiers

1. Function by displacing the excess

penetrant film on the surface
through detergent action.
2. Force of water spray or
air/mechanical agitation in an open
dip tank provides the scrubbing
action while the detergent
displaces the film of penetrant.
Hydrophilic Emulsifiers

3. Emulsification time will vary,

depending on its concentration,
which can be monitored using a
suitable refractometer.
4. Hydrophilic emulsifiers
(removers) can also be used as
contact emulsifiers.
Hydrophilic Emulsifiers

5. These penetrants have the

advantage of eliminating some of
the danger of over rinsing.
6. Require agitation to allow fresh
emulsifier to contact the surface
penetrant.
7. Renders the penetrant water
washable.
 Solvent Removers

1. Used to remove excess

penetrant from test surfaces.
2. Must be approved by the
penetrant manufacturer and
penetrant procedure or
specification.
 Developers

1. Development of penetrant indications is

the process of bringing the penetrant
out of discontinuities open to the surface
through blotting action of the applied
developer.
2. This increases the visibility of the
indications under suitable visible white
light or fluorescent light.
 Dry Developer

1. Fluffy powder that is applied to

dry test surfaces.
2. Most adaptable to rough
surfaces and automatic
processing.
3. Easiest to remove.
 Dry Developer

4. Care should be taken not to

contaminate developer with
fluorescent penetrant.
5. Penetrant contamination may
cause specks that appear as
indications.
Nonaqueous Wet Developer
1. Suspension of developer particles
in a rapid drying solvent.
2. Used with solvent removable
processing.
3. Applied only to dry surfaces.
4. This type of developer is intended
for application by spray only.
Water Based Developers

1. Applied before drying the test

object.
2. Water suspendible developer:
Particles are held in suspension
in water and require continuous
agitation to keep the particles in
suspension.
Water Based Developers

3. Water soluble developer: Powder

is dissolved in water, forming a
solution; once mixed they remain
mixed.
Special Purpose Penetrants

1. There are low sulfur and low

chlorine materials for testing
nickel alloys, certain stainless
steels and titanium.
2. High and low temperature
penetrants are available for
special applications.
Special Purpose Penetrants

3. Low energy emulsifiers and inhibited

solvent removers are available to
slow emulsification and the removal
of excess penetrant.
4. Wax and plastic film developers
absorb and fix penetrant indications
to provide record of the test.
 Precautions

1. Ensure that the test object is not

damaged or overheated during
the test.
2. The technician must ensure that
solvent won’t harm the test
object.
3. Review the MSDS frequently.