PC NETWORKIING

AND
ADMINISTRATION

Engr. Jenny V. Ephan

BASIC NETWORKING
CONCEPTS
 WHAT IS NETWORK/ COMPUTER
NETWORK ?

• is a collection of hardware and software that permit a

group of computers to communicate with each other and
share resources.
• is set of devices connected by communication links.
• a node can be computer, printer or any other devices which
is capable of sending and receiving information at each
other.
  The generic term node or host refers to
any device on a network.
 Data transfer rate - The speed with which data is
moved from one place on a network to another.
- is a key issue in computer
networks .
 Computer networks have opened up an entire frontier in the world of
computing called the client/server model.
 File server A computer that  Web server A computer dedicated
stores and manages files for to responding to requests (from the
multiple users on a network. browser client) for web pages.
 INTERNET - a network of networks or
connection between two or more networks.
each host has an address of the form n/h where
n is the network number and h is the number of
the host on network n.
 Uses of Network
• It is Used for

i) Business Application
ii) Home Application
iii) Mobile Users
iv)E-Mail
 Internet Connections
 Internet backbone A set of high-  Internet service provider (ISP) A
speed networks that carry Internet company that provides other companies
traffic. or individuals with access to the Internet.
(PLDT, GLOBE, CONVERGE, ZAIN and
These networks are provided by
etc.)
companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM.
 There are various technologies available
that you can use to connect a home
computer to the Internet

– A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio signal for
transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at the destination
converts it back again into data
– A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to transfer
digital data to and from the phone company’s central office
– A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals come in on
to transfer the data back and forth
• Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds are faster than
128 bits per second
– DSL connections and cable modems are broadband connections
– The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet to your
home computer) may not be the same as uploads (sending data
from your home computer to the Internet)
 There are several methods of
managing a network, including:

1. Cloud-based network management

This method of storing information and connecting devices makes use of cloud
computing. It's typically available to companies, governments and the general
public through the internet.
2. Converged network management
This strategy connects multiple devices via the same access switch. It's a
traditional method of connecting various wired and wireless devices.
3. Centralized network management
This strategy is the most common way to implement a new network. It involves
connecting devices to a server in a central location.
 12 Types of
Computer Networks
 1. Local area network (LAN)

A local area network, or LAN, is the most

common network type. It allows users to connect
within a short distance in a common area. Advantages :
1) Sharing of Files.
2) Sharing of Programs.
3) Communication Exchange.

Disadvantages :
4) Reliability.
5) Capacity.
6) High Cost.
 2. Personal area network (PAN)

A personal area network, or PAN, is a small-

scale network that revolves around one person
or device. A PAN connects just a few devices in
a small localized area.
 3. Wireless local area
network (WLAN)
A wireless local area network, or WLAN,
operates similarly to a LAN because it
transmits data within a small area. It's rarely
necessary to have a wired connection for
devices that use a WLAN.
 4. Campus area network (CAN)

A campus area network, or CAN, is a network Advantages:

used in educational environments such as
1. Economical
universities or school districts. While each
2. Sharing of data is easy
department in a school might use its own LAN, 3. Transferring files is fast
all the school's LANs could connect through a 4. Use a wireless connection
CAN. 5. One ISP across all departments
Disadvantages:
1. Limitation for connecting nodes
2. Maintenance is expensive
 5. Metropolitan area network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network, or a MAN, is a medium- Advantages

sized network that's larger than a CAN. While a MAN is
Less expensive
a costly network, it provides efficient connectivity Sending local emails
between devices across a wide geographical range. High speed than WAN
For example, a city government might operate with a Sharing of the internet
MAN if it has offices across the entire metropolitan Conversion from LAN to MAN is
area. easy
High Security
Disadvantages
Difficult to manage
Internet speed difference
Hackers attack
Technical people required to set up
More wires required
 6. Wide area network (WAN)

A wide area network, or a WAN, is an extensive network Advantages

that's not confined to geographical space. Corporations Covers large geographical area
and international companies may use WANs to provide a Centralized data
common network with far-reaching connectivity. Get updated files and data
A lot of application to exchange messages
Sharing of software and resources:
Global business:
High bandwidth
Distribute workload and decrease travel charges

Disadvantages
Security problems
Needs firewall and antivirus software
The setup cost is high
Troubleshooting problems
Server down and disconnection issue
 7. Storage area network (SAN)

A storage area network, or a SAN, is a network that teams

Advantages
use to store mass amounts of sensitive data. It provides a High speed of data transfer
way to centralize data on a non-localized network that Centralized backup
differs from the main operating one. Dynamic failover protection
Adding/removing of storage devices is easy
Data security

Disadvantages
Not good for high traffic
Sensitive data may be leaked
 8. Passive optical local area
network (POLAN)
A passive optical local area network, or a POLAN, is a low-
cost network that can link various locations to one central Advantages Disadvantages
network. POLANs have the power to connect multiple
entities to one hub of information. High speed Individual bandwidth
Longer Distance Splitter issue
Many connections Failure detection
Less Energy Evolve issue
Lost cost The issue at the enterprise
Fewer cables needed level
Learning curve Expensive components
Ideal for large organizations Installation issues
High downstream and upstream Transfer issue
High security
Supports telephone
 9. Enterprise private network
(EPN)
An enterprise private network, or an EPN, is an
exclusive network that businesses build and The advantages of EPN are-
operate to share company resources at high •Safe and secure network
speeds. EPNs are typically unique to a specific •Helps in centralizing the IT resources
company, which ensures the connection is •Cost-effective for big companies
secure.

Disadvantages of EPN are-

•High services fees
•Coverage limitation
•Difficult to set up
 10. Virtual private network
(VPN)
A virtual private network, or VPN, is a private network that's
available through the internet. This type of network functions
similarly to an EPN because it provides a secure, private The advantages of VPN are-
connection. VPNs typically don't require the same •Helps in creating a virtual IP address
infrastructure as EPNs •Bypasses Geo-Restrictions
•Increases Online Privacy

Disadvantages of VPN are-

•Dropped Connections
•Data logging
•Slow connection speeds
 11. System-area network (SAN)

A system area network, or a SAN, is a broad local network

that provides connections in clusters. The various devices The advantages of SAN are-
connected to a SAN operate as a single system. SANs •Can handle large volumes of data
are newly developing networks that operate at high •Ideal for high-level network performance
speeds. •Has high bandwidth

Disadvantages of SAN are-

•Hard to handle as the network is vast and complex.
•Complex in nature
•High initial cost
 12. Home Area Network (HAN)

HAN is used to share various computers or peripheral

devices used in the same home. There is one device that
acts as a centralized device for the function of Network The advantages of HAN are-
Address Translation(NAT). •Resource Sharing
•Security
•MultiUser

Disadvantages of HAN are-

•Slow Connectivity
•Expensive
•High Security
Types of Network
Topology
 1. Point to Point Topology
- is a type of topology that works on the functionality
of the sender and receiver. Weaknesses:
- simplest communication between two nodes, in
 Limited Scalability: P2P networks are not scalable as
which one is the sender and the other one is the adding new devices requires establishing a separate
receiver. link between each new device and the existing network,
which can be time-consuming and expensive.
Strengths:  Maintenance: P2P networks can be difficult to maintain
as each device has to be managed separately.
 Efficiency: P2P networks are highly efficient as they allow for  Lack of Redundancy: P2P networks do not provide
direct communication between two devices without any redundancy, which can be a problem if a link fails or a
intermediate devices or network components. device goes offline. with a dedicated communication
 Security: P2P networks are relatively more secure than other connection between two systems.
topologies as they do not rely on intermediate devices that
can be compromised or attacked.
 Simple Configuration: P2P networks are easy to configure
and require minimal management or administration.
Characteristics of point to point topology
Some features of point to point topology are:-
•High bandwidth
•Easy replacement of node
•Connection speed is fast
•Troubleshooting is easy
•Maintenance is easy
•Low latency rate
•The mode of connection is simple
•Low cost

Example of point to point topology

•The connection between TV and remote control
•The connection between AC and remote control
•Connecting two computers in LAN (local area network
•The connection between a router to a router
•The connection between a router and a workstation
 2. Mesh Topology

- is connected to another device via a particular

channel.
- It is the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
The main characteristics of a mesh topology are explained below:

•In a mesh topology, all devices act as routers and determine the path of data flow based on the
availability of connections between nodes.
•The network's traffic burden is divided across all nodes in the event of a cable break, maintaining
the network's availability.
•Given that network components are all physically connected to one another, it is a sort of network
architecture that provides redundant connectivity across the network, but it is seldom employed
because of the effort necessary in maintaining a network and the high cost.
•The mesh network design is perfect for constructing partial mesh topologies since it balances the
need for redundancy with the cost.
 Two types of Mesh Topologies

1.Fully-connected Mesh Topology 2. Partial Mesh Topology

All the nodes within the network are connected with The partial mesh is more practical as compared to the full mesh.
every other. If there are n number of nodes are In a partially connected mesh, all the nodes aren't necessary to
connected during a network transmission, each node be connected with one another during a network.
will have an n-1 number of connections.
Example of mesh topology
•Zigbee
•Google Home
•Z-wave
•Google Wi-Fi
•Google OnHub
•Data-centric fabric
•Networks in military devices
 3. Star Topology
- all the devices are connected to a single hub
through a cable.
- This hub is the central node and all other nodes
are connected to the central node.
- The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an
intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at
the same time the hub can be intelligent known
as an active hub.
- Active hubs have repeaters in them.
- Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to
connect the computers.
- In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection),
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
The central hub which connects nodes are of
four types:
1.Hub or repeater
2.Switch or bridge
3.Router or gateway
4.Computer

Example of star topology:

•Ethernet network is made by a star topology
Star Topology is divided into the
following three groups based on
its mode of operation:
 4. Bus Topology
- is a network type in which every computer and network device
is connected to a single cable.
- It is bi-directional.
- It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Examples of a bus topology:

•An example of bus topology is connecting two floors through a single line.
•Ethernet networks also use a bus topology
•In a bus topology, one computer in the network works as a server and other
computers behave as clients. The purpose of the server is to exchange data
between client computers.
•Printers, scanners and other input/output devices can be added in the
office/home by using bus topology network
 5. Ring Topology

- it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighbouring devices.
- a number of repeaters are used for Ring topology
with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the
ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th
node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
Example of ring topology:

•Ring topology is used in WAN (Wide area network)

•Used in MAN (Metropolitan area network)
•Sometimes used in homes
 6. Tree Topology

- is the variation of the Star topology. This topology

has a hierarchical flow of data.
- protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration ) are used.
The main characteristics of Tree Topology are as
follow:
•You can add more computers to a specific location in a
tree topology by extending Star Networks connected to
the main Backbone Cable.
•If one of the computers on the network fails, the
operation of the entire computer network is unaffected.
As a result, it is more reliable and fault-tolerant.
•Because of the use of a Switch or Intelligent Hub, its
network performance may be quite good.
•Tree topology is an excellent choice for your small-scale
LAN (Local Area Network).
•Furthermore, it provides increased security, which can
be further enhanced by the use of Intelligent Hub.
 Types of Tree Topology

1. Bus Tree Topology:

- connect PCs to central hubs or switches, and a
backbone cable handles communication
throughout the tree network.
- the Bus Backbone connects to central devices
rather than each computer separately. However,
users have the option of directly connecting
devices to the Backbone Cable.
2. Cluster Tree Topology
- the most crucial concept in cluster tree
topology is the parent-child link between
nodes.
- The parent is only the hub or switch, for
example, which serves as the central
device.
3. Spanning Tree Topology
- One of the terms that are frequently used to
connect every node in a graph is spanning tree
topology.
- is frequently used and provides a mechanism to
connect all of the graph edges is the Minimal
Spanning Tree (MST).
- Many Backbone Cables are present in this type
of topology to connect the various clusters that
are accessible throughout the complete
computer network.
Example of tree topology:

•Different floors can be connected to each other through combining

star topology network and central bus backbone
•B-trees looks same as tree topology and it is used in different
programming languages like MySQL, Redis, PostgreSQL and in
filesystems including ext4, NTFS
 7. Hybrid Topology

- is used when the nodes are free to take any form.

- It means these can be individuals such as Ring or
Star topology or can be a combination of various
types of topologies.
Types of Hybrid Topology
 Features of hybrid topology:

1) Flexible in size: New topologies and nodes can

Examples of hybrid topology:
be added and removed from the network easily.
A hybrid topology is used in various places including:
2) Reliable: If there occurs any error in the •School
network then it is detected easily and that network •Business
device or node can be exchanged with a new •Office
device or node. •In university campuses
•Research organizations
3) The characteristics of each topology are •Multi-national offices
combined in the hybrid network and weakness of •Banks
different topologies are eliminated. •Automated industry
The OSI Model
 OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
- describes seven layers that computer systems use
to communicate over a network.
- It was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major computer
and telecommunication companies in the early
1980s
- is still widely used, as it helps visualize and
communicate how networks operate, and helps
isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.
- OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of
the major computer and telecom companies, and
was adopted by ISO as an international standard in
1984.
 Advantages/ Disadvantages
of OSI Model

The advantages of the OSI model are:

•It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network model.

•It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that the
interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.

•It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature.
Protocols in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature of the
network.

•It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.

The disadvantages of the OSI model are:
•It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate technology. This restricts its practical
implementation.
•The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared, the TCP/IP protocols were already implemented. So,
the companies were initially reluctant to use it.
•The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow and costly.
•Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and presentation layer have very little functionality when
practically deployed.
•There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow control and error control are offered by multiple
layers.
•The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate solutions for practical network implementation.
•After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well as the TCP/IP model. So it was labeled as inferior
quality.
•TCP/IP model was very much preferred by the academia. It was believed that OSI was a product of the European communities
and the US government, who were trying to force an inferior model to researchers and programmers. Hence, there was
considerable resistance in adopting it.
 1. Physical Layer

- is the first and lowest layer from the bottom of the 7-layered OSI model and delivers security to hardware.
- is in charge of data transmission over the physical medium.
- It is the most complex layer in the OSI model.
- converts the data frame received from the data link layer into bits, i.e., in terms of ones and zeros.
- It maintains the data quality by implementing the required protocols on different network modes and
maintaining the bit rate through data transfer using a wired or wireless medium.
 Attributes of the Physical Layer
1. Signals: The data is first converted to a signal for efficient data transmission.
There are two kinds of signals:

•Analog Signals: These signals are continuous

waveforms in nature and are represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves for the
transmission of data.

•Digital Signals: These signals are discrete in

nature and represent network pulses and digital
data from the upper layers.
2. Transmission media: Data is carried from source to destination with the help of transmission media.
There are two sorts of transmission media:
•Wired Media: The connection is established with •Wireless Media: The connection is established
the help of cables. For example, fiber optic cables, using a wireless communication network. For
coaxial cables, and twisted pair cables. example, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.
3. Data Flow: It describes the rate of data flow and the transmission time frame.
Factors affecting the data flow are as follows:
•Encoding: Encoding data for transmission on the channel.
•Error-Rate: Receiving erroneous data due to noise in transmission.
•Bandwidth: The rate of transmission of data in the channel.
4. Transmission mode: It describes the direction of the data flow.
Data can be transmitted in three sorts of transmission modes as follows:
•Simplex mode: This mode of communication is a one-way communication where a device can only send
data. Examples are a mouse, keyboard, etc.

•Half-duplex mode: This mode of communication supports one-way communication, i.e., either data can
be transmitted or received. An example is a walkie-talkie.

•Full-duplex mode: This mode of communication supports two-way communication, i.e., the device can
send and receive data at the same time. An example is cellular communication.
5. Noise in transmission: Transmitted data can get corrupted or damaged during data transmission due
to many reasons.
Some of the reasons are mentioned below:

•Attenuation: It is a gradual deterioration of the network signal on the communication channel.

•Dispersion: In the case of Dispersion, the data is dispersed and overlapped during transmission,
which leads to the loss of the original data.

•Data Delay: The transmitted data reaches the destination system outside the specified frame time.
 2. Data Link Layer
 Its job is to provide node-to-node delivery of data.
 The primary role of the data link layer is to check whether the data transmitted from one point to another
node point on the physical layer is error-free or not.
 If any error occurs during data transmission, the data link layer will discard that data and resend the data.
 This layer is responsible for reliable and efficient communication between devices.
 The data link layer is classified into
two sub-layers, which are given
below:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC) or Data Link Control (DLC)
Sublayer:
 It deals with the communication between the lower layers and
upper layers.
 It is responsible for assigning the frame sequence number.
 It specifies the mechanism that can be used to address stations
on a transmission medium and to control the data exchanged
between the sender and the receiver.
2. Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer:
 The bottom sublayer of the Data Link Layer is the Media Access
Control.
 It is also known as Medium Access Control.
 The main responsibility of this sublayer is to encapsulate the
frame, check for transmission errors, and then allow the frame to
be forwarded to the upper layer.
 It determines who is permitted to access the media at any given
time.
 Functions of Data link layer:
1. Hop to Hop or Node to Node delivery of data:
 The responsibility of the Data Link Layer (DLL) is to provide hop-to-hop delivery of data.
 The data link layer determines the node to which the data should be sent first, then the following node
the data should be sent to, and so on, till the information arrives at the destination system.
2. Framing:
 It is a process of encapsulating data packets obtained from the network layer into frames for
transmission.
 Each frame consists of a header, a payload field, and a trailer.
 The header contains the frame start bits, the address of both the source and destination, the type of
data, and quality control bits.
 The payload field contains the data packet.
 The trailer contains error detection bits, error correction bits, and frame stop bits.
3. Physical addressing:
 The Data Link Layer attaches the physical addresses of the receiver and sender to the header of each
frame.
 To send information from source to destination, you must know what we are sending and where we are
sending it.
4. Error control:
 can be controlled in the data link layer in three phases of error control as follows:
1. Error detection: The error in the data frame is detected with the help of error detection bits
present in the frame trailer.
2. Acknowledgment: After receiving the data frame, the receiver responds to inform the sender
about the successful delivery of the data frame. This acknowledgment can be positive or
negative. If the data frame is received successfully, it sends positive feedback to the sender;
otherwise, it sends negative feedback to the sender.
3. Retransmission: If the receiver successfully receives the data frame, the sender sends the next
set of data frames, but if the data frame does not reach the receiver successfully, the sender
must resend the data frames.
5. Flow Control:
 If the sender sends frames with high speed and the receiver receives frames with low speed, the
sender will be overloaded, resulting in loss of data.
Protocols of Data link layer:
•Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC): It is the first bit-oriented protocol and is widely used. It is a subset of
the High-Level Data Link Protocol.
•High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC): It is a bit-oriented protocol for conveying data on point-to-multipoint
and point-to-point links. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed this protocol in 1979.
It provides two transmission modes: Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) and Normal Feedback Mode (NRM).
•Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP): It is a simple internet protocol through which the user is allowed to access
the internet with the help of a computer modem. Rick Adams developed this protocol in 1984. It works with
TCP/IP for communication over the router and serial port.
•Point to Point Protocol (PPP): It is a character-oriented or byte-oriented protocol. PPP is a WAN protocol that
runs over an Internet link. It is used in broadband communication. It provides transmission encryption, loop
connection authentication, and compression of data.
•Network Control Protocol (NCP): It allows transferring data between two devices. It is a part of the point-to-
point protocol. This network layer will carry the data packets from the origin to the goal.
•Link Control Protocol (LCP): It is mainly used for establishing and maintaining the link before sending data.
•Link Access Procedure (LAP): It is derived from the high-level data link protocol. It is used for framing and data
transmission over point-to-point links.
 3. Network Layer
•The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.
•It handles the service requests from the transport layer and further forwards the service request to the data
link layer.
•The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical addresses
•It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the traffic problems such as
switching, routing and controls the congestion of data packets.
•The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to the receiving host.
 The main functions performed by
the network layer are:

•Routing:
 When a packet reaches the router's input link, the router will move the packets to the router's output link.
- For example, a packet from S1 to R1 must be forwarded to the next router on the path to S2.
•Logical Addressing:
 The data link layer implements the physical addressing and network layer implements the logical
addressing.
 Logical addressing is also used to distinguish between source and destination system.
 The network layer adds a header to the packet which includes the logical addresses of both the sender
and the receiver.
•Internetworking:
 This is the main role of the network layer that it provides the logical connection between different types
of networks.
•Fragmentation:
 The fragmentation is a process of breaking the packets into the smallest individual data units that travel
through different networks.
 Forwarding & Routing

 In Network layer, a router is used to forward the

packets.
 A router forwards a packet by examining a
packet's header field and then using the header
field value to index into the forwarding table.
 The value stored in the forwarding table
corresponding to the header field value indicates
the router's outgoing interface link to which the
packet is to be forwarded.
For example, the router with a header field value
of 0111 arrives at a router, and then router indexes this header
value into the forwarding table that determines the output link
interface is 2. The router forwards the packet to the interface
2. The routing algorithm determines the values that are
inserted in the forwarding table. The routing algorithm can be
centralized or decentralized.
 Services Provided by the
Network Layer
•Guaranteed delivery:
 This layer provides the service which guarantees that the packet will arrive at its destination.
•Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay:
 This service guarantees that the packet will be delivered within a specified host-to-host delay bound.
•In-Order packets:
 This service ensures that the packet arrives at the destination in the order in which they are sent.
•Guaranteed max jitter:
 This service ensures that the amount of time taken between two successive transmissions at the sender
is equal to the time between their receipt at the destination.
•Security services:
 The network layer provides security by using a session key between the source and destination host.
 The network layer in the source host encrypts the payloads of datagrams being sent to the destination
host.
 The network layer in the destination host would then decrypt the payload. In such a way, the network
layer maintains the data integrity and source authentication services.
 4. Transport Layer

 The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services directly to the application
processes running on different hosts.
 The transport layer provides a logical communication between application processes running on different
hosts. Although the application processes on different hosts are not physically connected, application
processes use the logical communication provided by the transport layer to send the messages to each
other.
 The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not in the network routers.
 A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network applications.
For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols that provide a different set of
services to the network layer.
 All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It also provides other services
such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth guarantees, and delay guarantees.
 Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a message by using TCP or UDP.
The application communicates by using either of these two protocols.
Services provided by the transport
layer protocols can be divided into
five categories:
The reliable delivery
has four aspects:
 5. Session Layer

 the job of the session layer is to control and maintain connections between systems to share data.
 It establishes, maintains, and ends sessions across all channels.
 In case of a network error, it checks the authenticity and provides recovery options for active sessions.
 It manages sessions and synchronizes data flow.
 regulates when computers can send data and how much data they can send.
 essentially it coordinates communication between devices.
 Functions of the Session Layer:

•Session Establishment:
 the session which is created allows users to share data, remote access, and file management.
 when the session is released, the transport connection is mapped.
 the ways in which transport connection maps are one-to-many, one-to-one, and many-to-one.
•Data Transfer:
 it is the very basic function of the session layer, which handles the exchange of data between systems in
a full-duplex or half-duplex mode of transmission.
 the session layer allows only one user to transmit data in half-duplex as well as exchange data in full-
duplex mode.
•Dialog Management:
 the session layer keeps log data on which connections are established to transmit and receive data.
 it is accountable for establishing, synchronizing, preserving, and ending the conversation between the
sender and the receiver.
 it uses a token mechanism in which the user sharing the data is given a token in case of half duplex mode
and, after the exchange, transfers it to another device.
 the token method maintains the efficiency of the connection.
•Synchronization:
 the session maintains proper connectivity between systems, and if any error occurs, then it provides a
recovery option which is called a known state.
 the session layer adds synchronization bits to the message to use the known state in the event of an
error, these bits can be used as checkpoints.
 it adds synchronization points or checkpoints to the data stream for longer communication.
 it ensures that the data streams are successfully received and acknowledged up to the checkpoints.
 in case of any failure, only the stream needs to be retransmitted after the checkpoints.
•Authentication:
 the process of identification is known as authentication.
 it takes a guarantee from the user to permit them access to the data.
 authentication is very important because it provides security.
•Authorization:
 it grants privileges after authentication of the user.
 authorization means providing access to the data that is authorized to the specific user.
 Protocols of the Session
Layer:
•RTCP:
 It is an abbreviation for Real-time Transport Control Protocol.
 It is used to provide audio and video over the Internet.
 Basically, it periodically transmits control packets to all participants in the session. It provides feedback on
QoS (Quality of Service) to all participants in the session. It is used in video conferencing, television
services, etc.
•PPTP:
 It is the full form of Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol.
 This is the technology used to implement VPN. With the help of PPTP, data can be transmitted securely
from one node to another through a tunnel.
•PAP:
 It is an abbreviation for Password Authentication Protocol.
 The point-to-point protocol uses it to authenticate the user.
 It takes care of whether the user is authentic or not and then grants access.
 It works in such a way that the user will enter the id and password, then after the authentication, the
server will reply with a confirmation.
•ADSP:
 It is an abbreviation for AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol.
 It is a networking protocol that was introduced 38 years ago, in 1985, and was created for Apple Macintosh
networks.
 It allows users to share printers and folders for access by other network users.
•RPC:
 It is an abbreviation for Remote Procedure Call Protocol.
 It helps in communication between processes that are residing in different systems connected over a network.
 It helps one program to request a service from another program located on another computer on a network.
 The processes that are communicating do not need to comprehend the details of the network.
•iSNS:
 It is an abbreviation for Internet Storage Name Service.
 It manages and configures Fibre Channel and iSCSI devices. This protocol is used by many platforms.
•SDP:
 It is an abbreviation for Sockets Direct Protocol.
 It is a standard wire protocol that supports stream sockets on RDMA (Remote Direct Memory Access) fabrics.
 6. Presentation Layer
 this layer presents the incoming data from the application layer of the sender machine to the receiver
machine.
 it converts one format of data to another format of data if both sender and receiver understand
different formats; hence this layer is also called the translation layer.
 it deals with the semantics and syntax of the data, so this layer is also called the syntax layer.
 it uses operations such as data compression, data encryption & decryption, data conversion, etc.
 Functions of the presentation
layer:
•Translation:
 Data is sent from sender to receiver.
•Encryption and Decryption:
 Whatever data is being transmitted between the sender and the receiver, that data must be secure
because an intruder can hack the data passing between the sender and the receiver.
 Hackers can modify the data and send the modified data to the receiver to create false communication.
 is responsible for encrypting and decrypting data to avoid data leakage and data modification.
•Compression and Decompression:
 If the file size is large, it becomes difficult to transmit the large file over the network.
 File size can be decreased by compressing the file for easy transmission of data.
 Compression is the method of diminishing the size of a file to transmit data easily in less time.
 When the compressed data reaches the receiver, the data is reconstructed back to the original size, and
this process is called decompression.
 Sublayers of presentation layer in
the OSI model:

1. Common Application Service Element (CASE):

 This sublayer offers services to layer-7, i.e., the application layer, and requests services from layer-5, i.e.,
the session layer.
 It supports various application services, such as Reliable Transfer Service Element (RTSE), Remote
Operation Service Element (ROSE), Association Control Service Element (ACSE), and Commitment
Concurrency and Recovery (CCR).
2. Specific Application Service Element (SASE):
 This sublayer offers application-specific protocols, such as Message Oriented Text Interchange Standard
(MOTIS), Remote Database Access (RDA), File Transfer Access and Manager (FTAM), Common
Management Information Protocol (CMIP), Virtual Terminal (VT), Distributed Transaction Processing
(DTP), Job Transfer and Manipulation (JTM), and others.
 Protocols of the Presentation
layer:
•Independent Computing Architecture (ICA):
 It is a presentation layer protocol in the OSI model, which was formed by Citrix Systems.
 It is used for transferring data from server to client.
 It is a very thin protocol as it does not require much overhead in order to transmit data from the server
over to the client. It is well-optimized for the WAN.
•Network Data Representation (NDR):
 It is the protocol that is used to implement the presentation layer of the OSI model.
 It provides different kinds of data representation, such as images, video, audio, numbers, etc. It is used
for Microsoft Remote Procedure Call (Microsoft RPC) and Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) /
Remote Procedure Calls (RPC).
•Apple Filing Protocol (AFP):
 It is a communication protocol that was specifically designed for macOS by Apple, Inc.
 It provides file services for Classic Mac OS and macOS. This protocol is used to share files over the
network.
•NetWare Core Protocol (NCP):
 It is a protocol that is associated with the client-server operating system.
 The user can access the directory, print, message, file, clock synchronization, etc., with the help of this protocol.
 It supports many platforms, such as Linux, Classic Mac OS, Windows NT, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows.
•Packet Assembler/Disassembler Protocol (PAD):
 It is a telecommunications equipment that splits a stream of data into separate packets and formats packet headers for
asynchronous communication on X.25 networks.
 It receives packets from the network and converts them into a stream of data. The PAD provides many asynchronous
terminal connectivities to a host computer.
•eXternal Data Representation (XDR):
 It is a computer network protocol that is used to transfer data between two systems.
 It was first published in 1987. XDR is used by various systems such as NDMP, Network File System, NetCDF, ZFS, Open
Network Computer Remote Procedure Call, and others.
•Lightweight Presentation Protocol (LPP):
 It is a protocol that offers ISO presentation services over TCP/IP based networks.
 This protocol explains an approach to provide stream-line support for OSI over TCP/IP based networks.
 7. Application Layer
 which means that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the software
application.
 The application layer programs are based on client and servers.
 The Application layer includes the
following functions:
•Identifying communication partners:
 The application layer identifies the availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit.
•Determining resource availability:
 The application layer determines whether sufficient network resources are available for the requested
communication.
•Synchronizing communication:
 All the communications occur between the applications requires cooperation which is managed by an
application layer.
Services of Application Layers
•Network Virtual terminal:
 An application layer allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
 the remote host thinks that it is communicating with one of its own terminals, so it allows the user to log
on.
•File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM):
 an application allows a user to access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a computer and to
manage files in a remote computer..
•Addressing:
 to obtain communication between client and server, there is a need for addressing.
 when a client made a request to the server, the request contains the server address and its own address.
The server response to the client request, the request contains the destination address, i.e., client
address, to achieve this kind of addressing, DNS is used.
•Mail Services:
 an application layer provides Email forwarding and storage.
•Directory Services:
 an application contains a distributed database that provides access for global information about various
objects and services.
Authentication: It authenticates the sender or receiver's message or both.
 Network Application
Architecture
 application architecture is different from the network architecture.
 the network architecture is fixed and provides a set of services to applications.
 the application architecture, on the other hand, is designed by the application developer and defines how
the application should be structured over the various end systems.
2 Types of Application Architecture
1. Client-server architecture:
 an application program running on the local machine sends a request to another application program is
known as a client, and a program that serves a request is known as a server.
- For example, when a web server receives a request from the client host, it responds to the
request to the client host.
Characteristics Of Client-server architecture:
•A server is fixed, well-known address known as IP address because the server is always on while the client can always
contact the server by sending a packet to the sender's IP address.
 Disadvantage Of Client-server architecture:
 It is a single-server based architecture which is incapable of holding all the requests from the clients.
- For example, a social networking site can become overwhelmed when there is only one server exists.

•P2P (peer-to-peer) architecture:

 It has no dedicated server in a data center.
 are the computers which are not owned by the service provider.
 Most of the peers reside in the homes, offices, schools, and universities.
 communicate with each other without passing the information through a dedicated server, this architecture is known as peer-to-peer
architecture.
 the applications based on P2P architecture includes file sharing and internet telephony.
 Features of P2P architecture
•Self scalability:
 In a file sharing system, although each peer generates a workload by requesting the files, each peer also adds a service capacity by
distributing the files to the peer.
•Cost-effective:
 It is cost-effective as it does not require significant server infrastructure and server bandwidth.

Client and Server processes

•A network application consists of a pair of processes that send the messages to each other over a network.
•In P2P file-sharing system, a file is transferred from a process in one peer to a process in another peer. We label one of the two processes
as the client and another process as the server.
•With P2P file sharing, the peer which is downloading the file is known as a client, and the peer which is uploading the file is known as a
server. However, we have observed in some applications such as P2P file sharing; a process can be both as a client and server.

Therefore, we can say that a process can both download and upload the files.
 Network equipment
(routers and switches)
 Network devices
 also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware on a
computer network to communicate and interact with one another.

For example :

Patch Panel
Repeater
Hub
Bridge
Switch
Routers
Gateway
NIC
 1. Patch Panel
 Is a piece of hardware with multiple ports that helps organize a group of cables.
 each of these ports contains a wire that goes to a different location.
 can be quite small, with just a few ports, or very large, with many hundreds of ports.

Difference between Patch Panel and Switch

 The main function of patch panel is for the purpose of neat and tidy cable management. While
network switch enables the connected device to talk to others via the cables. It depends on your
specific needs to choose from them.
Patch Panel Diagram
 2. Repeater
 is a device that amplifies and regenerates signals as they pass through the network.
 the primary purpose of a repeater is to extend the distance of a network by increasing the strength and
quality of signals over long distances or through dense blocks.
 3. Hub/ Network hub

 is a common connection point, also known as a network hub, which is used for connection of devices in a
network.
 It works as a central connection for all the devices that are connected through a hub.
 The hub has numerous ports.
 If a packet reaches at one port, it is able to see by all the segments of the network due to a packet is
copied to the other ports.
 A network hub has no routing tables or intelligence (unlike a network switch or router), which is used to
send information and broadcast all network data across each and every connection.
 3 types of the hub
1.Passive Hub:
 the passive hubs are the connection point for
wires that helps to make the physical network.
 It is capable of determining the bugs and faulty
hardware.
 Simply, it accepts the packet over a port and
circulates it to all ports.
 It includes connectors (10base-2 port and RJ-45)
that can be applied as a standard in your network.
 this connector is connected to all
local area network (LAN) devices.
 Additionally, the advanced passive hubs have AUI
ports, which are connected as the transceiver
according to the network design.
2. Active Hub:
 As compared to a passive hub, it includes
some additional features.
 It is able to monitor the data sent to the
connected devices.
 It plays an important role between the
connected devices with the help of store
technology, where it checks the data to be
sent and decides which packet to send first.
 It has the ability to fix the damaged packets
when packets are sending, and also able to
hold the direction of the rest of the packets
and distribute them.
3. Intelligent Hub:
 It is a little smarter than passive and active
hubs.
 These hubs have some kinds of
management software that help to analyze
the problem in the network and resolve
them.
 It is beneficial to expend the business in
networking; the management can assign
users that help to work more quickly and
share a common pool efficiently by using
intelligent hubs.
 However, it offers better performance for the
local area network. Furthermore, with any
physical device, if any problem is detected,
it is able to detect this problem easily.
 Features of Hub
•It acts with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.
•It includes only one collision domain and broadcast domain.
•It works at the physical layer of the OSI model and also offers support for half-duplex transmission mode.
•It cannot create a virtual LAN and does not support spanning tree protocol.
•Furthermore, mainly packet collisions occur inside the hub.
•It also has a feature of flexibility, which means it includes a high transmission rate to different devices.
Applications of Hub

•Hub is used to create small home networks.

•It is used for network monitoring.
•They are also used in organizations to provide connectivity.
•It can be used to create a device that is available thought out of the network.
 Advantages of Hub/
Disadvantages of Hub
Advantages of Hub
•It provides support for different types of Network Media.
•It can be used by anyone as it is very cheap.
•It can easily connect many different media types.
•The use of a hub does not impact on the network performance.
•Additionally, it can expand the total distance of the network.

Disadvantages of Hub
•It has no ability to choose the best path of the network.
•It does not include mechanisms such as collision detection.
•It does not operate in full-duplex mode and cannot be divided into the Segment.
•It cannot reduce the network traffic as it has no mechanism.
•It is not able to filter the information as it transmits packets to all the connected segments.
•Furthermore, it is not capable of connecting various network architectures like a ring, token, and ethernet,
and more.
 Difference between hub
and switch
Hub Switch
A hub works at the physical layer A switch works at the data link A hub is not capable of storing It uses accessible content
of the OSI model. layer of the OSI model. MAC addresses. memory, which can be
accessed by application-
A hub contains a single domain of In switch, several ports include
specific integrated chips
collision. separate collision domains.
(ASIC).
It performs frame flooding, which It mainly performs broadcast, and
can be broadcast, unicast, or also performs unicast and It is not an intelligent device. A switch is an intelligent device.
multicast. multicast when required.
The speed of the hub network The speed of switch is 10/100
In the hub, the transmission mode In switch, the transmission mode is up to 10 Mb per second. Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps.
is Half-duplex is full-duplex.
It uses electrical signal orbits. It uses frame & packet.
It does not support the Spanning- It supports Multiple Spanning-
Tree protocol. Tree.
In the hub, mostly collisions occur In full-duplex switch does not
in setup. occur collisions.
It is a passive device. It is an active device.
 4. Bridge
 is a networking device that works in both the physical and data link layer in a network.
 This devices can divide a large network into smaller segments and pass the frames between two
originally separated LANs.
 A bridge maintains a MAC address of various stations attached to it. When a frames enters a bridge, it
checks the address contained in the frame and compares it with a table of all the stations on both
segments.
Sr. No Points of Router Bridge
differences
1 Function The main function is to route the The main function of Bridge is to filter the
packets and to reduce the network packets and to keep the traffic for each
problems. segment separately.
2 Layers It is a hardware device that works at It is a hardware device that works at the OSI
the network, data link & physical layer model's data link and physical layer.
of the OSI Model.
3 Address The Router has access to the logical The Bridge has access to a physical address
address or IP address of stations. or MAC address of stations.
4 Protocols RIP, OSPF, etc. these are some In Bridge, there are no protocols to
protocols that can be configured in the configure.
Router.
5 Connection It connects two or more networks and The Bridge is used to extend the existing
routes packets between them. network or divide or large network into
smaller segments.
6 Routing Table The Router uses a routing table to The Bridge does not use a routing table for
store information. This table is dynamic storing information.
and is updated using routing protocols.
7 Data Structure A router used graph data structure. Bridge used tables data structures
8 Network Segmentation In Router enables network In Bridge network segmentation is
segmentation. disable.
9 Domain It works on more than single Bridge works on a single broadcast
broadcast domains. domain.
10 Transparency It is not transparent to the end It is transparent to the end stations and
stations. do not rely on the protocol.

11 Efficiency Routing is more efficient. The Bridge has less efficiency than the
Router.
12 Ports It has more than two ports. It has only two ports.
13 Path Router devices can Bridge devices can accommodate a
accommodate multiple paths. single path.
14 Setup Difficult Easy
15 Cost Routers are relatively expensive Bridges are relatively inexpensive
devices. devices.
 5. Switch/ switch hub
 A switch is a networking device, which provides the facility to share the information & resources by
connecting different network devices, such as computers, printers, and servers, within a small
business network.
 With the help of a switch, the connected devices can share the data & information and communicate
with each other.
 Without a switch, we cannot build a small business network and cannot connect devices within a
building or campus.
 Types of Switch

1. Unmanaged Switches

The unmanaged switches are mainly used for basic connectivity. These are mostly used in small networks
or wherever only few more ports are required, such as at home, in a lab, or in a conference room. In
unmanaged switches, there is no requirement for any configuration, which means by just plugging in, they
will work.

2. Managed Switches

Managed switches are more secure than unmanaged switch, and provide other features and flexibility
because we can easily configure them to custom-fit our network. Hence, we can have the greater control,
and can also better protect our network and improve service quality for those who access the network.
 How does a switch work?

As we know, each networking device contains a unique MAC (Media Access Control)
address. When a device or computer sends an IP packet to another device, then switch
put the IP packet with source MAC address and destination MAC address, and
encapsulate it with a Frame, and then send it to another device.
When Frame reaches the destination device, it is stripped, and the device gets the IP
packets and reaches only that device, which matches the entered destination MAC
address.
IP packet is a unit of data in a network that contains information about the source and
destination addresses and other control information needed to transport the packet over a
network.
MAC (Media Access Control) address, sometimes referred to as a hardware or physical
address, is a unique, 12-character alphanumeric attribute that is used to identify individual
electronic devices on a network. An example of a MAC address is: 00-B0-D0-63-C2-26.
 Advantages of Switch

•It enhances the available bandwidth of the network.

•It can be directly connected to the workstations or devices.

•Enhances the performance of the network.

•Networks with switches have less frame collision, and it is because

switches develop the collision domain for each network.

•It helps in reducing the workload on the individual host such as PCs.
 6. Routers

 is a networking device used to connect multiple switches and their corresponding networks to build a
large network.
 these switches and their corresponding networks may be in a single location or different locations.
 router is an intelligent device and responsible for routing the data packets from source to destination
over a network.
 It also distributes or routes the internet connection from modem to all the networking devices
either wired or wireless, such as PC, Laptop, Mobile phone, tablet, etc
 The router connects multiple networks and allows the networked devices & users to access the
internet.
 It works on the network layer & route the data packets through the shortest path across the network.
 It mainly performs
two functions:
• Creating and maintaining the local area network,
• Managing the entering & leaving data.

Working of a Router
 Within a home or office, we have various networked devices such as PC, tablets, printers, etc., and
with the router, these devices can be connected to the internet and form a network. A router first
connects the modem to other devices to allow communication between these devices and the
internet.
 Router routes/transmit the data packets with the defined IP address from one network to another or
within a network. It does it by providing a local IP address to each device over the internet; it ensures
the right destination so that data reach the right place rather than lost within the network.
 It finds out the best and fastest path and then sends data packets from that path to the devices
connected within the network.
 It works similar to the delivery package with a defined address to reach the right recipient only.
 Types of Router
1. Wireless Router

•Wireless routers are the most commonly used routers in offices and homes as they don't need any wire or
cable to connect with networking devices.
•It provides a secure connection, and only authenticated users can access the network using the id &
password.
•Using wireless router, internet can be accessed by the n number of users within the specified range.

2. Wired Router/Broadband Router

•As its name suggests, it requires a wire or cable to connect to the network devices.
•Such routers are mostly used in schools or small offices to connect the PCs with the Ethernet cable.
•It also has a Wi-fi access point, and a mobile phone can be connected to it using the VOIP (Voice-over-
Internet Protocol) technology.
•It is connected to the ADSL modems to take the transmission data from the modem and distribute it to a
further network.
 Advantages of Router

 The wireless routers are mostly used that enable most networking devices to connect easily at any time,
without the worry of a bunch of wires.
 It can connect with the different architecture of the network, such as Ethernet cable, Wi-fi, or WLAN.
 It provides highly secure network access with password protection.
 It reduces the network traffic with the help of the collision feature.
 It provides data packets to the correct destination with the best route using the routing table and
intelligence.
 Difference Chart between
Switch and Router
Switch Router
It connects multiple networked devices in the It connects multiple switches & their corresponding
network. networks.
It works on the data link layer of the OSI model. It works on the network layer of the OSI model.
It is used within a LAN. It can be used in LAN or MAN.
A switch cannot perform NAT or Network Address A router can perform Network Address Translation.
Translation.
The switch takes more time while making A router can take a routing decision much faster than a
complicated routing decisions. switch.
It provides only port security. It provides security measures to protect the network from
security threats.
It comes in the category of semi-Intelligent It is known as an Intelligent network device.
devices.
It works in either half or full-duplex transmission It works in the full-duplex transmission mode. However, we
mode. can change it manually to work on half-duplex mode.
It sends information from one device to another in the It sends information from one network to another
form of Frames (for L2 switch) and the form of packets network in the form of data packets.
(for L3 switch).

Switches can only work with the wired network. Routers can work with both wired & wireless networks.

Switches are available with different ports, such as 8, A router contains two ports by default, such as Fast
16, 24, 48, and 64. Ethernet Port. But we can also add the serial ports
explicitly.

It uses the CAM (Content Addressable Memory) table It uses the routing table to get the best route for the
for the source and destination MAC address. destination IP.
 7. Gateway
 is simply a device or hardware that acts as a "gate" between the networks.
 We can also define it as a node that acts as an entry for other network nodes.
 It is also responsible for facilitating the traffic flow within the network.
 Gateway uses more than one communication protocol, so its activities are more complicated than a
router or a switch.

The complexity of the Components

The single access point in the gateway outside the network is the main difference between router and
gateway. Based on the gateway's criticality, it either serves as a server with the gateway application installed
or acts as a linking mechanism to others between several computer networks. The two networks should have
a gateway that allows the networks to communicate as an entry and exit. Gateways are doors to the network
that determine the network's boundaries and edges.
Security
Routers Gateway

 have to be secluded from being filled with  the gateway is important, since it is the endpoint
massive data and heavy traffic. for the network, it should be highly protected to
 it is important to ensure that congestion between avoid a virus attack.
the routing paths can be minimized acceptably, so  The data passes via the gateway could be easily
several routing tables should be designed to map accessed. If a single router is flooded or granted,
the network's data travel process. the particular router can be disabled by the
customer. In order to get the data over the
network, another router determines the shortest
possible way.
 However, if the user eliminates the gateway, it
leads to the whole down of the network.
Components Configuration
Routers Gateway

 are designed with a list of IP  gateway is configured by specifying the recommended

addresses from the routing tables internal and external IP addresses, it has two ports to iterate
that can transfer the router data between routers and gateways for internal and external IPs.

Routing and Managing the Traffic Flow

Routers Gateway

 two devices are used to monitor network traffic  gateway handles traffic between two similar
between two or more different networks. networks easily, while routers control the same
 However, a minimum of two network cards can network's traffic flow.
be applied in the system if the user finds it
difficult to manage traffic.
 Head to Head Comparison between
the Router and Gateway
Features Router Gateway
Definition A Router is a networking layer system used A gateway is simply a device or hardware that
to manage and forward data packets to acts as a "gate" between the networks. It could
computer networks. also be defined as a node that acts as an entry
for other network nodes.
Working Usually, routers run on the 3rd layer of the Gateway interprets the network system as
Principle protocol and transmit the packets from one endpoints from one packet to another.
system to another. A router chooses the
network's path to transport the data packets.
Hosting It is available only to dedicated applications. It is hosted on the dedicated application, physical
servers, and virtual applications.
Networks It routes the data packets via similar It connects two dissimilar networks.
networks.
Deployment It is deployed on the router hardware in a The gateway is deployed as the virtual or
specific appliance. physical server or the specific appliance.
OSI Layer It can operate only It can operate only on the 5 layers.
on 3 and 4 layers.
Dynamic Routing Router supports dynamic routing. Gateway doesn't support dynamic routing.

Associated terms The router is also called a The gateway is also called a gateway router,
wireless router and an Internet proxy server, and voice gateway.
router.

Component's The router operates by installing The gateway works by distinguishing

Operating Process different routing data for different between the network structure and the
networks, and the destination components available outside the network.
address is based on traffic.
 7. NIC (Network Interface Card)

 is a hardware component that is present on the computer.

 It is used to connect different networking devices such as computers and servers to share data
over the connected network.
 It provides functionality such as support for I/O interrupt, Direct Memory Access (DMA) interfaces,
partitioning, and data transmission.
 NIC is important for us to establish a wired or wireless connection over the network.
 is also known as Network Interface Controller, Network Adapter, Ethernet card, Connection card,
and LAN (Local Area Network) Adapter.
 Functions of the Network
Interface Card

1.NIC is used to convert data into a digital signal.

2.In the OSI model, NIC uses the physical layer to transmit signals and the network layer to
transmit data packets.

3.NIC offers both wired (using cables) and wireless (using Wi-Fi) data communication
techniques.

4.NIC is a middleware between a computer/server and a data network.

5.NIC operates on both physical as well as the data link layer of the OSI model.
 Components of Network
Interface Card
Network Interface Card contains the following essential components:

1. Memory - is one of the most important components of the NIC. It is used to store the data during
communication.
2. Connectors - are used to connect the cables to the Ethernet port.
3. Processor - is used for converting the data message into a suitable form of communication.
4. Jumpers - are the small device that is used to control the communication operations without the need of
any software. It is also used to determine settings for the interrupt request line, I/O address, upper memory
block, and type of transceiver.
5. Routers - to provide wireless connectivity, routers are used.
6. MAC address - is also referred to as a physical network address. It is a unique address that is present
to the network interface card where ethernet packets are communicated with the computer.
 Types of Network Interface
Cards
1. Ethernet NIC - was developed by Robert
Metcalf in 1980. It is made by ethernet cables.
This type of NIC is most widely used in the LAN,
MAN, and WAN networks.
Example: TP-LINK TG-3468 Gigabit PCI
Express Network Adapter.

2. Wireless Networks NIC - It is a wireless

network that allows us to connect the devices
without using the cables. These types of NICs
are used to design a Wi-Fi connection.
Example: Intel 3160 Dual-Band Wireless Adapter
 Advantages/ Disadvantages
of NIC
A list of advantages of NIC is given below: A list of disadvantages of NIC is given below:

1.As compared to the wireless network card, NIC 1.NIC is inconvenient as compared to the wireless
provides a secure, faster, and more reliable card.
connection
2. For wired NIC, a hard-wired connection is
2, NIC allows us to share bulk data among many required.
users.
3. NIC needs a proper configuration to work
3. It helps us to connect peripheral devices using efficiently.
many ports of NIC.
4. NIC cards are not secure, so the data inside NIC
4. Communication speed is high. is not safe.

5. Network Interface cards are not expensive.

6. NICs are easy to troubleshoot.

Physical Transmission
Medium (cabling)
 Physical Transmission
Medium
 a transmission medium is a physical connection or an interface between the transmitter and the
receiver.
2 Major Categories of Transmission Media
1. Guided Transmission Media - are also 2. Unguided Transmission Media -also known as
known as wired or bounded media. unbounded or wireless media, they help in transmitting
 consist of wires through which the data is electromagnetic signals without using a physical
transferred. medium.
 is a physical link between transmitter and  here, air is the medium.
recipient devices.  there is no physical connectivity between
 signals are directed in a narrow pathway transmitter and receiver.
using physical links.  these types of transmission media are used for
 these media types are used for shorter longer distances however they are less secure than
distances since physical limitation limits the guided media. There are three main types of
signal that flows through these transmission wireless transmission media.
media.
 Different Types of Guided
Transmission Media
1) Coaxial Cable

 This type was popular for several early

networks.
 Today, coaxial cable is still used for television
connections.
 The cable is consisted a single copper wire
and covered by at least three layers including
insulting material, woven metal, and plastic
coating.
 It is the big and thick cable; therefore, it is
appropriate for a long distance as well as resist
to interferences.
 However, coaxial cable is not fast for
transmitting data as other media because it
has only one single copper wire.
2) Twisted-pair Cable

 This type is more popular among modern network

because it is faster as well as easier to settle than
coaxial cable.
 The insulated copper wires will be twisted in pairs
and coated by plastics.
 Twisted-pair cable is commonly used for a LAN
transmission medium and usually used for
telephone transmission.
 2 Types Twisted Pair
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
- consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another.
- this type of cable has the ability to block interference and
does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose.
- It is used for telephonic applications.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

- this type of cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external
interference.
- It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.
3) Fiber-optic Cable

 This type of cable is consisted of glass fibers in the

layers of glass cladding and a protective outer
jacket.
 It is able to carry voice, video and data
transmissions for a long distance.
 Because of its capacity and reliability, this type of
transmission medium is popular high-speed long-
distance transmission.
 Fiber-optic cable can be the alternative
transmission for MANs and Wans, but it is too
expensive for a small LAN.
OM - optical multimode fiber OS - optical singlemode fiber
 Different Types of Unguided
Transmission Media
1. Radio waves

 these are easy to generate and can penetrate

through buildings.
 The sending and receiving antennas need not
be aligned.
 Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves
for transmission.
2. Microwaves

 It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and

receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other.
 The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna.
 Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz.
 These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
3. Infrared

 Infrared waves are used for very short distance

communication.
 They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
 This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used
in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.
Communication
Protocols
 COMMUNICATION
PROTOCOL

 are sets of formal rules that describe how digital messages must be formatted.
 They are vital in networking and telecommunication systems because they bring uniformity in the
sending and receiving of digital messages.
 communication protocols are necessary for the exchange of messages in or between computing
systems.
 are implemented in hardware and software and usually cover authentication, error detection, correction,
and signaling.
 Common communication
protocols include:
•Internet Protocol (IP) - makes it possible for devices to send and receive data via the internet.

•File Transfer Protocols (FTP) - make it possible to transfer files between a client and a server on a network.

•Bluetooth Protocols- allow wireless connection between mobile devices over a short range to form a
personal area network (PAN).

•Instant Messaging & Chat Protocols - make it possible to send messages across the globe efficiently and
securely.

•Routing Protocols- make communication between routers and other network devices possible.

•Automation Protocols- are used to automate different processes in smart buildings, cloud technology, self-
driving vehicles, etc.
 NETWORK MANAGEMENT
PROTOCOLS

Network management protocols provide the rules for effectively operating a computer network. These
protocols define the policies and procedures for monitoring and managing a network to ensure stable
communication and performance.

Network management protocols provide vital information such as host availability, packet loss, the health of
the connection, etc. Network operators then use this information to troubleshoot network connectivity issues
and improve network performance.

Network management protocols apply to all network devices such as routers, switches, servers, computers,
etc., and are responsible for establishing and maintaining stable connections between the network devices.
They also help network administrators to identify network errors, evaluate the quality of the network
connection, and determine how to fix the network issues.
 SECURITY PROTOCOLS
 are communication protocols that use cryptographic mechanisms to ensure that the network and the
data sent over it are protected from unauthorized users.
 These protocols define the sequence and formats of digital messages including cryptographic elements
exchanged between network devices.
 Security protocols are instrumental in providing security services such as confidentiality, authentication,
and integrity for data transmitted over the network.

To achieve this security protocols fulfill the following functions:

•Encryption - protects the data by ensuring that only authorized entities have access;
•Authentication - ensures that the devices on a network are who they claim to be;
•Transportation - ensure the security of data while it is transmitted from one network device to another.
 TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL
(TCP/IP)

 is made up of a suite of non-proprietary protocols used to interconnect devices on the Internet as well as
on private networks.
 The TCP/IP protocol suite defines how applications can create channels of communication over the
network.
 It also governs how digital messages are assembled into packets, addressed, transmitted, routed, and
reassembled at the destination.
 TCP and IP are the main protocols in this suite or collection of protocols.
 TCP deals with how applications create communication channels, transmit, and receive messages. While
IP deals with addressing and routing the messages.
 TCP/IP makes networks reliable with the ability to recover automatically from device failures, so it requires
little to no central management.
 The architecture of TCP/IP is similar to that of the OSI model and consists of layers. The four layers
of TCP/IP are:

1.Application layer - The application layer consists of application protocols such as File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

2.Transport layer - The most common transport protocols are TCP, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

3.Network layer - Routers and IP operate at the network layer.

4.Data Link layer - Ethernet and common switches operate in the data link layer.

5.Physical layer - Everything physical such as the ethernet cables and network interface cards (NICs)
operate in the physical layer.
 SOME COMMON NETWORK
PROTOCOLS

1. HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

 The World Wide Web functions based on communication between web clients, i.e. browsers, and web
servers in the cloud.
 This communication between client and server happens through the HTTP request/response circle. HTTP
is an application layer protocol that is sent over a TCP connection.
 The HTTP protocol fetches resources such as HyperText Markup Language (HTML) documents,
functioning as the foundation of data exchange on the web.
 In addition to fetching HTML documents, it can also fetch images and videos or post content to servers.
 Hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP, which is encrypted in order to
increase the security of data transfer.
2. SECURE SOCKET SHELL (SSH)

 is a network protocol that enables users and system administrators to access network devices over an
unsecured network. SSH uses a strong password and/or a cryptographic key pair for authentication.
 SSH thus allows users to remotely connect to computers or applications and execute commands in a
secure way.
 The SSH protocol is typically used by administrators for executing system management tasks.

3. USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communication protocol that facilitates data transfer between network
devices. Similar to TCP, UDP also operates in the transport layer and serves as an alternative to TCP
where transmissions are time-sensitive and reliability is not as important.
 does not formally establish a connection before starting the data transfer, thus speeding up the data
transfer. However, this can cause loss of packets. UDP finds use in voice and video communications
since they are time-sensitive and designed to handle some amount of packet loss.
 IP ADDRESS (INTERNET
PROTOCOL)
- a unique numerical identifier for every device or network that connects to the internet.
 SUBNET MASK
 is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and setting network bits to all 1s. In this way, the
subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and host addresses.
 The “255” address is always assigned to a broadcast address, and the “0” address is always assigned to
a network address.
DHCP and DNS
 DNS (Domain Name
System)
 is a naming system that is hierarchical and decentralized for computer systems and other resources that
are linked to the internet or a private network.
 It links various data bits to domain names that are unique to each participant.
 DNS translates domain names into numerical IP addresses, which are used to locate and identify
system services and devices via the underlying network protocols.
- (for example, www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP addresses (for example,
192.0.2.44)
Advantages and Disadvantages of DNS
Advantages:

Internet Speed

One of the most important advantages of DNS is its ability to provide high-speed internet connections.
Individuals and organizations usually use this speed.
IP address Conversion
Users may categorize and archive search terms using DNS servers instead of remembering IP addresses.
When a domain name is given to a search engine, it is transformed into an IP address. As a result, you no
longer require memorizing the IP address for each site you usually visit.

Internet Dependency

Users and businesses cannot function without the internet, which has become an integral part of our daily
lives. The DNS server simplifies internet access by memorizing all IP addresses.

Stability

The IP address of a website may vary for various reasons. As a result, users are required to be up to date
with this information. It may be a time-consuming task. However, the DNS system regularly updates IP
addresses so that users may avoid unnecessary effort.
Security

Some DNS servers are created for security purposes. Whenever hackers attempt to attack the servers,
their attempts are stopped before they can reach your systems. However, you also require extra security
precautions if the organization is huge and contains a lot of sensitive information.

Disadvantages:

DNS Attacks

The DNS attack is one of the main issues that DNS faces. Here, the legitimate DNS address is swapped
out for a fake one to redirect consumers to phoney websites.

Registry Control

ICANN is responsible for the DNS registry. It means that no other organizations can control them. It is a
non-profit organization that was founded in a single country.
Server Breakdown

When the DNS server fails, the World Wide Web goes down with it. If the server crashes, the link to the local
network will get disconnected, making it impossible for clients to reach them.

Troubleshooting

DNS problems are typically difficult to resolve and may occur due to their geographical and scattered nature.

Client Information’s

DNS queries often don't carry information about the client that started name resolution. As a result, the
server-side can identify DNS servers' IP addresses, and hackers may manipulate them.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)

 is a network protocol for IP networks that uses client-server architecture to allocate IP addresses and
other communication settings to networked systems.
 It contains information like the computer's IP address and subnet mask, the router's IP address, and the
name server's IP address. It employs UDP port 67 as the destination server and UDP port 68 as
the client.
 DHCP protocol includes two components that are a protocol and a mechanism.
 The protocol is primarily utilized to transfer host-specific configuration data from a DHCP server to the
host.
 Advantages and
Disadvantages of DHCP

Advantages Disadvantages

1.It assigns IP addresses to request clients 1.It might be a single point of failure in networks with only
automatically and is straightforward to one configured DHCP server.
implement. As a result, the time required to 2.The user is not able to connect to the network without a
configure IP addresses manually may be DHCP server.
decreased. 3.Because DHCP servers do not provide a secure user
2.A network administrator may configure a authentication method, any new user may join the
network remotely using the DHCP protocol. network. Various security problems occur, like
3.It doesn't need any extra cost for unauthorized clients depleting IP addresses and
implementation. unauthorized clients receiving IP addresses.
4.It supports different scopes, such as multicast 4.The system name remains unchanged when a new IP
scope, super scope, etc. address is assigned to a system.
5.IP address duplication or incorrect 5.Devices must be able to support DHCP setups. The
assignment is avoided by using DHCP. connected device will also fail if the network's DHCP
Therefore, there is no possibility of IP address server fails.
conflicts.
 Key Differences between DNS
and DHCP
1.DNS is utilized to resolve and recursively resolve the host's name to address or address to name. In contrast,
DHCP is utilized to allocate addresses to hosts in the network either statically or dynamically.
2.The DNS server is responsible for getting the queries via the user and responding back with the answers. In
contrast, the DHCP protocol is responsible for allocating temporary addresses to user systems for a set period
of time and then extending the lease as required.
3.DNS has a certain hierarchy that does not allow storing all domain names in one place but divides them into
subdomains and then stores the specific piece of information on a specific server. As a result, it is
decentralized. In contrast, a DHCP server configures IP addresses for users from an IP addresses pool and
centrally manages all operations. A DHCP server utilizes a router to accept DHCP broadcasts and transmit
them to it if it is not directly connected to the users.
4.DNS may support both TCP and UDP protocols. In contrast, DHCP only supports UDP.
5.DNS is a decentralized system. In contrast, DHCP is a centralized system.
6.DNS protocol utilizes port number 53. In contrast, DHCP protocol could either use port number 67 or 68.
7.You don't require remembering the IP address with the help of DNS protocol. In contrast, DHCP protocol is a
reliable IP configuration.
 Head-to-head comparison between DNS
and DHCP

Features DNS DHCP

Full Forms DNS is an abbreviation for Domain Name System. DHCP is an abbreviation for Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol.

Port Number It utilizes port number 53. It could either use port number 67 or 68.
Basic It is utilized to resolve and recursively resolve the It is utilized to allocate addresses to hosts in the network
host's name to address or address to name. either statically or dynamically.

Related It supports both TCP and UDP protocols. It only supports UDP.
Protocols
Working It is a decentralized system. It is a centralized system.
Methodology
Server It is responsible for getting the queries via the user In contrast, the DHCP protocol is responsible for allocating
and responding back with the answers. temporary addresses to user systems for a set period of
time and then extending the lease as required.

Advantage You don't require remembering the IP address It is a very reliable IP configuration.
using the DNS protocol.
Purposes 1. IP addresses are converted into symbolic 1. It gives extra information like the host's IP address and
names and vice versa. the computer's Subnet mask.
2. It is used to find domain servers for Active 2. It allocates an IP address to a host for a set period of
Directory. time.
Network Security
 Network security
 is the security provided to a network from unauthorized access and risks.
 It is the duty of network administrators to adopt preventive measures to protect their networks from
potential security threats.

Common security threats include:

•Wiretapping
•Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks
•Phishing
•SQL injections
•Cyberattacks
•Viruses
•Eavesdropping
 The Importance of
Network Security

 Network security is vital to maintaining the integrity of your data and the privacy of your organization and
employees.
 It encompasses everything from the most basic practices, such creating strong passwords and fully
logging out of community computers, to the most complex, high-level processes that keep networks,
devices and their users safe.
 Network security is the key to keeping that sensitive information safe, and as more private data is stored
and shared on vulnerable devices, network security will only grow in importance and necessity.
 While each and every member of your organization can take strides to help keep things secure, network
security has become more complex in recent years.
 Adequately protecting networks and their connected devices requires comprehensive network training, a
thorough understanding of how networks actually work and the skills to put that knowledge into practice.
 It’s crucial for networks to be thoroughly and properly set up, secured and monitored to fully preserve
privacy.
 Common Network Security
Vulnerabilities
 Virtually all computer networks have vulnerabilities that leave them open to outside attacks; further, devices
and networks are still vulnerable even if no one is actively threatening or targeting them. A vulnerability is a
condition of the network or its hardware, not the result of external action.

These are some of the most common network vulnerabilities :

 Improperly installed hardware or software
 Operating systems or firmware that have not been updated
 Misused hardware or software
 Poor or a complete lack of physical security
 Insecure passwords
 Design flaws in a device’s operating system or in the network
 Physical Security
Considerations
You must also consider the physical security of the various devices, servers and systems that are used to
power and maintain your network. If a network is physically vulnerable, it doesn’t matter how strong or
extensive its security is, because if someone can gain physical access to any of these items, the entire
network could then be compromised.

Important physical safety considerations include the following:

 Storing network servers and devices in a secure location

 Denying open access to this location to members of your organization
 Using video surveillance to deter and detect anyone who attempts to access this location
 Types of Network
Security Attacks
•Data Theft: Also called data exfiltration, data theft occurs when an attacker uses their unauthorized access
to obtain private information from the network. Attackers frequently use stolen login credentials to read
protected files or steal the data while it is in transit between two network devices.
•Insider Threat: As its name implies, insider threats come from employees within an organization. These
employees use their own access to infiltrate the network and obtain sensitive or private company information.
•Malware Attacks: A malware attack occurs when a malicious code (malware) inserts undesired,
unauthorized software onto a network device. Malware can easily spread from one device to another, making
it very difficult to get rid of entirely.
•Password Attacks: Any type of attack that involves someone attempting to use a password illegitimately is
considered to be a password attack. The hacker may obtain access either by guessing, stealing or cracking a
password.
•Social Engineering: These attacks use deception and falsehoods to convince others to give up private
information, such as an account password, or to violate security protocols. Social engineering attacks often
target people who are not tech-savvy, but they may also target technical support staff with false requests for
help.
 Types of Network
Security Solutions
•Antivirus Software: Antivirus software can be installed on all network devices to scan them for malicious
programs. It should be updated regularly to fix any issues or vulnerabilities.
•Encryption: Encryption is the process of scrambling data to the point of unintelligibility and providing only
authorized parties the key (usually a decryption key or password) to decode it. This way, even if data is
intercepted or seen by an unauthorized user, they are unable to read it.
•Firewalls: Firewalls are a software program, hardware device or combination of both that blocks unsolicited
traffic from entering a network. They can be configured to only block suspicious or unauthorized traffic, while
still allowing access to legitimate requests.
•Multi-Factor Authentication: Multi-factor authentication is simple: users must provide two separate
methods of identification to log into an account (for instance, typing in a password and then typing in a
numeric code that was sent to another device). Users should present unique credentials from two out of three
categories — something you know, something you have and something you are — for multi-factor
authentication to be fully effective.
•Network Segmentation: Network segmentation involves breaking down a larger network into various
subnetworks or segments. If any of the subnetworks are infiltrated or compromised, the others are left
untouched because they exist independently of each other.
 Network Protection Tips

Grant Access Sparingly

Always be aware of who has access to your network or servers. After all, not everyone in your organization
needs to be able to physically or electronically access everything on your network. Don’t give blanket access
to every employee in your organization; only give out what information is necessary to help reduce the
chance of unauthorized access, purposeful or unintentional tampering, or security breaches.

Follow Password Best Practices

It’s a basic principle, but following password best practices is a simple and highly effective way to maintain
network security. Many people create passwords that aren’t strong, reuse previous passwords and don’t use
unique passwords for each of their accounts. Encourage all employees to follow password best practices,
especially for their work accounts, as it can help keep everyone’s data safe.
make solving the problem significantly easier.
Secure Servers and Devices

Physically protect your servers and your devices. Keep them in a safe location, and do not grant general
access to this room or area. Be sure the room is locked when it’s not in use and keep an eye on the area
when it is unsecured or in use.

Test Your Security

You should never assume that your network is completely secure. Continually test and
troubleshoot your network to see what is substandard or to identify any vulnerabilities. Be sure to make
fixes and updates as needed.
In addition, if you do not already have a data recovery plan in place, now is the time to create one. Even the
best-secured networks are compromised and infiltrated, and though no one wants or necessarily expects
that to happen, being prepared for the worst will
 Network Troubleshooting
Applications
•Packet Sniffer: Provides a comprehensive view of a given network. You can use this application to analyze
traffic on the network, figure out which ports are open and identify network vulnerabilities.
•Port Scanner: Looks for open ports on the target device and gathers information, including whether the port
is open or closed, what services are running on a given port and information about the operating system on
that machine. This application can be used to figure out which ports are in use and identify points in a network
that could be vulnerable to outside attacks.
•Protocol Analyzer: Integrates diagnostic and reporting capabilities to provide a comprehensive view of an
organization's network. You can use analyzers to troubleshoot network problems and detect intrusions into
your network.
•Wi-Fi Analyzer: Detects devices and points of interference in a Wi-Fi signal. This tool can help you to
troubleshoot issues in network connectivity over a wireless network.
•Bandwidth Speed Tester: Tests the bandwidth and latency of a user’s internet connection. This application
is typically accessed through a third-party website and can be used to confirm user reports about slow
connections or download speeds.
 Hardware Tools

•Wire Crimpers: A wire crimper (sometimes called a cable crimper) is a tool that attaches media connectors
to the ends of cables. You can use it to make or modify network cables.

•Cable Testers: A cable tester (sometimes called a line tester) is a tool that verifies if a signal is transmitted
by a given cable. You can use one to find out whether the cables in your network are functioning properly
when diagnosing connectivity issues.

•Punch Down Tool: A punch down tool is used in a wiring closet to connect cable wires directly to a patch
panel or punch-down block. This tool makes it easier to connect wires than it would be to do it by hand.

•TDR: A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is a measuring tool that transmits an electrical pulse on a cable and
measures the reflected signal. In a functioning cable, the signal does not reflect and is absorbed in the other
end. An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is a similar tool, but used for measuring fiber optic cables,
which are becoming more common in modern networks.
•Light Meter: Light meters, also known as optical power meters, are devices used to measure the power in an
optical signal.

•Tone Generator: A tone generator is a device that sends an electrical signal through one pair of UTP wires.
You can use these tools to verify that signals are passing through the wires in your network. They are often
used to confirm phone connectivity.

•Loopback Adapter: A loopback adapter is a virtual or physical tool that can be used for troubleshooting
network transmission issues. It can be used by utilizing a special connector that redirects the electrical signal
back to the transmitting system.

•Multimeter: A multimeter (sometimes called a volt/ohm meter) is an electronic measuring instrument that
takes electrical measurements such as voltage, current and resistance. There are hand-held multimeters for
fieldwork as well as bench-top models for in-house troubleshooting.

•Spectrum Analyzer: A spectrum analyzer is an instrument that displays the variation of a signal strength
against the frequency.
THANK YOU
