Internetworking Devices
15.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
CONNECTING DEVICES
In this section, we divide connecting devices into five
different categories based on the layer in which they
operate in a network.
Topics discussed in this section:
Passive Hubs
Active Hubs
Bridges
Two-Layer Switches
Routers
15.2
Figure 15.1 Five categories of connecting devices
15.3
Device Categories
Operate below the physical layer
Passive hub
Operate at the physical layer
Repeater or an Active hub
Operate at the physical and data link layers
a bridge or a two-layer switch
Operate at the physical, data link, and network layers
a Router or a three-layer switch
Operate at all five layers
a Gateway
2.4
Passive Hubs
Just a connector
Connects the wires coming from different branches
In Star-topology LAN
Just a point where signals coming from different stations collide
Hub is the collision point
It is part of the media
Below the physical layer
2.5
Repeater
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation.
Repeater is a Physical Layer device
6
Figure 15.2 A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN
15.7
Note
A repeater forwards every frame;
it has no filtering capability.
15.8
Note
A repeater is a regenerator,
not an amplifier.
15.9
Note
A repeater connects segments of a LAN.
15.10
Repeater
Signals that carry information within a network can travel a
fixed distance before attenuation endangers the integrity of
the data.
Avoid too weak or corrupted signals
Regenerates and retimes the original bit pattern.
Extend the physical length of a LAN.
Not a device that can connect two LANs of different protocols
Two-port node
Receives a frame from any of the ports, it regenerates and
forwards it to the other port
Does not amplify as it cannot discriminate noise and signal
Weakened or corrupted signal – creates copy, bit for bit at original
strength
Location is vital as signal reaches it before any noise changes
meaning of bit, original voltage not recoverable.
2.11
Figure 15.3 Function of a repeater
15.12
17.1.1 Active Hubs
Multiport repeater
Create connections between stations in a
physical star topology
Can also be used to create multiple levels of
hierarchy
17.13
Figure 15.4 A hierarchy of hubs
15.14
Figure 17.2: Hub
17.15
Bridges
Regenerates the signal it receives. (PHY)
Check the physical (MAC) addresses (source and
destination) contained in the frame. (DL)
Filtering capability
Forwarded or Dropped?
Which port to forward?
Table that maps addresses to ports
Transparent Bridges
Source Routing Bridges
2.16
Note
A bridge has a table used in
filtering decisions.
15.17
Figure 15.5 A bridge connecting two LANs
15.18
Note
A bridge does not change the physical
(MAC) addresses in a frame.
15.19
Transparent Bridges
Stations completely unaware of bridge's
existence.
IEEE 802.1 d specification
1. Frames must be forwarded from one station to another
2. The forwarding table is automatically made by learning
frame movements in the network
3. Loops in the system must be prevented
Learning Process
Static Entries
Dynamic Table
2.20
Figure 15.6 A learning bridge and the process of learning
15.21
Transparent Bridges – Looping
Problem
Problem - redundant bridges bet pair of LANS ?
Reliability?
Each frame is handled separately because bridges
2 Nodes on a network sharing the medium, use an access
method such as CSMA/CD
In each iteration, there are newly generated fresh
copies of the frames
Bridges use the spanning tree algorithm to create a
loopless topology.
2.22
Figure 15.7 Loop problem in a learning bridge
15.23
Spanning Tree Algorithm
Broadcast Storms
Frames Flooding bringing down entire network
Each LAN to reach other LAN thro one path only
IEEE 802.1 Committee
Spanning Tree
Automatically Disabling Bridges (Logical Topology)
Not Physical Change
Requirements
Unique Bridge ID
Each port in Bridge – Unique Port ID
2.24
Spanning Tree Algorithm
contd..
Bridge Algorithm
1. Selection of Root Bridge (Lowest Bridge ID)
2. Determination of Root port of Each Bridge
Except Root Bridge
Port with Least-Cost Path to the Root Bridge
TIE – Choose the one with Lowest port ID
Cost to each LAN (Ex : Higher Cost to Lower Speed LAN)
Path Cost = Sum of Cost Along path from one bridge to Another
3. Selection of Designated Bridge for each LAN
Least Cost Path from LAN to Root Bridge
TIE – Choose the Lowest Bridge ID
Designated Port – Port that connects Designated Bridge and LAN
4. “Forwarding State” – All Root Ports & Designated ports
5. “Blocking State” – Other ports
2.25
15.26
15.27
Figure 15.8 A system of connected LANs and its graph representation
15.28
Spanning Tree Algorithm
Dynamic Algorithm.
Bridges send special messages to one other
Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDU)
Spanning Trees are updated when there is change
in system
Failure in Bridge
Addition/Deletion of Bridges
2.29
Source Routing Bridges
Another way to prevent loops in a system with
redundant bridges.
Sending station defines the bridges that the
frame must visit.
Prior to sending the data frame – Special Frame
exchanges.
Ex : used in Token Ring LANs
2.30
Source Routing Bridges
15.31
Switch
Switches are Data Link
layer devices.
Connected host MAC
addresses are learned
and stored on a MAC
address table.
Switch
Switches operate comparatively higher speeds that
Bridges.
Normally a Switch has more ports than a Bridge
Method of switching
Bridge is store and forward.
Switch can be store and forward, cut-through or fragment-free.
Bridges can operate only in half duplex mode, but a
Switch can operate both in half duplex or full duplex
mode.
Packet forwarding
Bridges are performed using software.
Switches using ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits).
2.33
Switching Modes
cut-through
A switch starts to transfer the frame as soon as the destination MAC
address is received. No error checking is available.
store-and-forward
At the other extreme, the switch can receive the entire frame before
sending it out the destination port. This gives the switch software an
opportunity to verify the Frame Check Sum (FCS) to ensure that the
frame was reliably received before sending it to the destination.
fragment-free
A compromise between the cut-through and store-and-forward
modes.
Fragment-free reads the first 64 bytes, which includes the frame
header, and switching begins before the entire data field and
checksum are read.
17.17.3 Routers
1. A router is a three-layer device; it operates in the
physical, data-link, and network layers.
2. Routes packets based on logical Addressing
3. Host – Host Addressing
4. Connects LANs and WANs in Internet
5. Routing Table – Dynamic - Routing Protocols
6. Faster Table Lookup & Forwarding
17.35
Figure 17.9: Routing example
17.36
Figure 15.11 Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs
15.37
Figure 2.8: Encapsulation / Decapsulation
2.38
