Conductors and Insulators
Materials are classified into:
(1) Conductors, (2) insulators and (3) semiconductors
most metals are good electrical conductors; for example
the resistivity of copper =
0.000000017 (Ohm-m)
most non-metals are insulators; for example the
resistivity of Glass =
1000 000 000 000 (Ohm-m)
1
Resistivity of a wire
The electrical resistance of a wire is high for
a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross
sectional area, and depends upon the
material of the wire. The resistance of a
wire can be expressed as
2
Circuit Elements
Electric circuits are considered to be made up of
localized circuit elements connected by wires which
have essentially negligible resistance. The three basic
circuit elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
3
Dc circuits
In dc circuits, the source may be a
battery, a dc generator or a rectifier.
Dc voltage source is characterized by a
constant unidirectional voltage
V
time
4
Resistor
Resistance and Ohm’s law
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is
defined as the ratio of the voltage (electrical potential
difference to the electric current which flows through it:
Ohm’s law I = V/R , V=IR, R = V/I
Power P =V I , V2 /R , I2 R
5
Resistor Combinations
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel
can be derived with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the
current law.
6
Voltage Law
7
Current Law
8
Inductors
Inductance of a coil of wire has the
capability of resisting any change of
electric current through the coil.
Unit of inductance is Henery
9
Capacitors
Capacitance consists of two parallel
plates arrangement and is defined in
terms of charge storage
10
AC circuits
In ac circuits, the source is the supply mains, an ac
generator or an inverter.
Ac voltage source is characterized by a voltage of
sinusoidal variation.
Number of cycles per second is called the frequency
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RMS values
Circuit currents and voltages in AC circuits are
generally stated as root-mean-square or rms values
rather than maximum values. The root-mean-
square for a current is defined by
Im
I rms
2
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Resistor in AC circuits
I = Vrms /Rrms
P =Vrms Irms
13
Imductor in AC circuits
=2f
14
Capacitor in AC circuits
=2f
15
Impedance
Whe the circuit consist of R, L
and C,the form of the current-
voltage relationship in AC
circuits is modified to the form:
V
Z
1
2
I Z R2
2πf L
2f πC
Z = Impedance (Ohms)
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Series connection
Resistors Inductors Capacitors
1 1 1 1
R R1 R 2 R 3 L L1 L 2 L 3
C C1 C 2 C3
V V
I I I2πf CV
R 2πf L
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Parallel connection
Resistors Inductors Capacitors
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C C1 C 2 C3
R R1 R 2 R 3 L L1 L 2 L 3
V
I
V I I2πf CV
R 2πf L
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New Topics
19
Power Factor (PF)
For a DC circuit the power is P=VI, and this relationship also
holds for the instantaneous power in an AC circuit. However, the
average power in an AC circuit expressed in terms of the rms
voltage and current is
P = V I cos
where is the phase angle between the voltage and current.
cos is called the power factor
From the phasor diagram for AC
impedance, it can be seen that the
power factor is R/Z.
For a purely resistive AC circuit,
R=Z and the power factor = 1.
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Power Factor (PF)
In resistive loads the voltage and
current are in phase. The PF = 1
In inductive loads the current lags the
voltage. The PF is less than 1
In capacitive loads the current leads
the voltage. The PF is less than 1
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Importance of Power Factor
A power factor of 1 or "unity power factor"
is the goal of any electric power station.
If the power factor is less than one, the
power station have to supply more current
to the user for the same power.
This results in
(1) more line losses.
(2) larger capacity equipment.
An industry will be charged a penalty if its
power factor is much different from 1.
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Importance of Power Factor
Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging
power factor", where the current lags the
voltage. This is because it has a lot of
electric induction motors.
Some industries have large banks of
capacitors for the purpose of correcting the
power factor
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Active and reactive power
When the voltage V and the current I are not in phase,
multiplication of V and I gives a quantity called apparent
power or gross power (in VA).
Apparent power constitute of two components: Active
power (useful power) and reactive power.
Active power = V I cos
Reactive power = V I sin
Apparent power
Reactive power
Active power 24
Three phase system
In 3- system, VA starts at angle 0o, VB starts at
angle 120o, VC starts at angle 240o.
VA, VB, VC are called phase voltages
VAB is called line voltage.
VA VB VC
VAB 3 VA
The line voltage
The 3- power = (3) x(1- power)
25
Three phase system
Star connection ( Y ) Delta connection ( )
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