ENVIRONMENTAL LAW:

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Dr. Gurneet Singh

 The Stockholm Declaration/
UNCHE 1972 (HISTORICAL
ASPECT)
 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
was first proposed to the Economic and Social Council in
Geneva in 1968 by Ambassador Astrome on behalf of the
Swedish government.
 It was to be a two-week world conference to address a single
agenda item: the environment.
 The thought was that if the world's political leadership could be
directed to consider only one subject for a short period of time,
very constructive decisions could be made on that subject that
would make a difference on the world scene.
 This model was so effective that, since 1972, the United
Nations has hosted many world conferences in the economic
and social field, focusing only on a single agenda item.
 The Stockholm Declaration/
UNCHE 1972
 The Stockholm Conference was a powerful force in increasing public
awareness and understanding of the fragility of the human environment.
 The years since then have witnessed significant progress in
environmental sciences; education, information-dissemination and
training have expanded considerably;
 in nearly all countries, environmental legislation has been adopted, and
a significant number of countries have incorporated within their
constitutions provisions for the protection of the environment.
 Apart from the United Nations Environment Programme, additional
governmental and non-governmental organizations have been
established at all levels, and a number of important international
agreements in respect of environmental co-operation have been
concluded.
 The principles of the Stockholm Declaration are as valid today as they
were in 1972. They provide a basic code of environmental conduct for
the years to come.
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 continued…
 The human environment would greatly benefit from an
international atmosphere of peace and security, free from the
threats of any war, especially nuclear war, and the waste of
intellectual and natural resources on armaments, as well as from
apartheid, racial segregation and all forms of discrimination,
colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign domination.

 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment,

having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972, having
considered the need for a common outlook and for common
principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the
preservation and enhancement of the human
environment,
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 continued…
 The Conference in Stockholm, from 5 to 16 June 1972, was the
first time that attention was drawn to the need to preserve natural
habitats to produce a sustained improvement in living conditions
for all, and the need for international cooperation to achieve this.
The emphasis was on solving environmental problems, but
without ignoring social, economic and developmental policy
factors.
 The Stockholm Declaration that was adopted at the conference
was formulated jointly by industrialized and developing countries .
 It contains principles of environmental protection and
development, as well as practical recommendations for their
implementation.
 It may be regarded as one of the foundation stones of the
international policy that would come to be known as “sustainable
development.”
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 continued…
 The Conference led in the same year to the establishment of the
UN Environmental Programme (UNEP), based in Nairobi, Kenya.
 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in
Stockholm 1972 recommended to the General Assembly that a
special UN Programme should be founded to deal with global
environmental issues. On 15 December 1972 the General
Assembly adopted resolution 27/2997, creating the United Nations
Environment Programme.
 UNEP is housed in the UN Office in Nairobi and became the first
organization in the UN system to have its headquarters in a
developing country.
 A global monitoring system Earthwatch, was also set up.
 President of the conference was Ingemund Bengtsson, the
Swedish agriculture minister. Secretary-general was Maurice F.
Strong from Canada.
 The need for The Stockholm
Declaration 1972
 The protection and improvement of the human environment is
a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and
economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent
desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all
Governments.

 We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in

many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in
water, air, earth and living beings; major and undesirable
disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere;
destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross
deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health
of man
 The need for The Stockholm
Declaration 1972 continued…
 In the developing countries most of the environmental
problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue
to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent
human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing,
shelter and education, health and sanitation.
 Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to
development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to
safeguard and improve the environment.
 For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should
make efforts to reduce the gap between themselves and the
developing countries.
 The natural growth of population continuously presents
problems for the preservation of the environment, and
adequate policies and measures should be adopted, as
appropriate, to face these problems.
 The need for The Stockholm
Declaration 1972 continued…
 Local and national governments will bear the greatest
burden for large-scale environmental policy and
action within their jurisdictions.

 International cooperation is also needed in order to

raise resources to support the developing countries in
carrying out their responsibilities in this field.

 A growing class of environmental problems will

require extensive cooperation among nations and
action by international organizations in the common
interest.
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 (The Principles )
 (1) Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and
adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that
permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn
responsibility to protect and improve the environment for
present and future generations. (BOTH RIGHT AND DUTY)
 (2) The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water,
land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of
natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of
present and future generations through careful planning or
management. (EQUITY PRINCIPLE)
 (3) The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable
resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable,
restored or improved.
 (4) Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely
manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat ,
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 (The Principles )
 (5) The non-renewable resources of the earth must be
employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their
future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such
employment are shared by all mankind.
 (6) The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances
and the release of heat must be in order to ensure that serious
or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems.
 (7) States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of
the seas.
 (8) Economic and social development is essential for ensuring
a favorable living and working environment for man.
 (9) Financial and technological assistance to countries (natural
disasters).
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 (The Principles )
 (11)The environmental policies of all States should not adversely
affect the present or future development potential of developing
countries.
 (13) States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to
their development planning so as to ensure that development is
compatible with the need to protect and improve environment for
the benefit of their population.
 (14) Rational planning
 (17) Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the
task of planning, managing or controlling the environmental
resources of States with a view to enhancing environmental quality.
 (19) Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation
as well as adults.
 (20) Scientific research and development in the context of
environmental problems must be promoted in all countries,
especially the developing countries.
 The Stockholm Declaration
1972 (The Principles )
 (21) States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and
the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own
resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the
responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do
not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the
limits of national jurisdiction. (Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas)
 (22) States shall cooperate to develop further the international law
regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other
environmental damage.
 (24) International matters concerning the protection and improvement of
the environment should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries,
big and small, on an equal footing.
 (25) States shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated,
efficient and dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the
environment..
 (26) Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear
weapons and all other means of mass destruction.
 NAIROBI DECLARATION (1982)
 The world community of states, assembled in Nairobi from 10 to
18 May 1982 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in
Stockholm
 The world community of states solemnly reaffirms its commitment
to the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan, as well as to the
further strengthening and expansion of national efforts and
international co-operation in the field of environmental protection.
 Rational energy planning among nations or groups of nations could
be beneficial. Measures such as the development of new and
renewable sources of energy will have a highly beneficial impact
on the environment.
 The human environment would greatly benefit form an
international atmosphere of peace and security, free from the
threats of any war, especially nuclear war.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development 1992 (Historical
aspect)
 (1987) The Brundtland Report (Our Common Future
(Published by UN through Oxford University Press –
stressed on Sustainable Development) was primarily
concerned with securing a global equity, redistributing
resources towards poorer nations whilst encouraging their
economic growth.
 The report also suggested that equity, growth and
environmental maintenance are simultaneously possible
and that each country is capable of achieving its full
economic potential whilst at the same time enhancing its
resource base.
 The report also recognized that achieving this equity and
sustainable growth would require technological and social
change.
..

The Brundtland
Commission
The World
Commission on
Environment &
Development
-‘Our Common
Future 1987
 Our Common Future
 Development not about getting richer, but about meeting essential
human needs & aspirations – emphasis on quality of & not quantity
of economic growth.
 In order to sustain the progress of humanity, overriding priority to be
given to meeting essential human needs, e.g. education, health,
clean air & water.
 When essential needs have been met, aspirations can legitimately
be pursued, at a level that all can reasonably aspire to, & within
ecological capacity.
 It was felt and considered that Technological innovation alone was
insufficient, social re-organisation was also required.
 Sustainability implied a concern for equity between generations, a
concern that had to be logically extended to equity within each
generation.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development 1992 (Historical
aspect)
 The report highlighted three fundamental components to
sustainable development: (1) environmental protection, (2)
economic growth and (3) social equity.
 The environment should be conserved and our resource
base enhanced, by gradually changing the ways in which
we develop and use technologies.
 Developing nations must be allowed to meet their basic
needs of employment, food, energy, water and sanitation.
If this is to be done in a sustainable manner, then there is a
definite need for a sustainable level of population.
 Economic growth should be revived and developing
nations should be allowed a growth of equal quality to the
developed nations.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development 1992 (Historical
aspect)
 “ The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is
the major objective of development. The essential
needs of vast numbers of people in developing
countries – for food, clothing, shelter, jobs – are not
being met, and beyond their basic needs these people
have legitimate aspirations for an improved quality of
life. A world in which poverty and inequity are
endemic will always be prone to ecological and other
crises. Sustainable Development requires meeting the
basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity
to satisfy their aspirations for a better life.” (1987
REPORT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT)
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development 1992 (Historical
aspect)
 After considering the 1987 Brundtland report, the UN
General Assembly called for the UN Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED).

 The primary goals of the Summit were to come to an

understanding of “development” that would support socio-
economic development and prevent the continued
deterioration of the environment , and to lay a foundation for
a global partnership between the developing and the more
industrialized countries, based on mutual needs and
common interests, that would ensure a healthy future for the
planet.
 ASCEND
 An Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into
the twenty-first century (ASCEND), convened by the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) during
November 1991 in Vienna, was among the most impressive of
pre-UNCED gatherings.
 ASCEND was attended by some 240 participants and 37
observers from 70 nations. The published proceedings, which
run to roughly 250,000 words, include 10 keynote speeches
with subsequent presentations on: Population and Natural
Resource Use; Agricultural Land Use and Degradation;
Industry and Waste; Energy; Health; Hydrologic and
Biogeochemical Global Cycles; Atmosphere and Climate;
Marine and Coastal Systems; Fresh Water Resources;
Biodiversity; Quality of Life; Science and the Environment;
Policies for Technology [ICSU-ASCEND 1992].
 ASCEND
 The ASCEND conference was convened to define a twenty-first
century agenda for the natural, social, engineering and health sciences
as they relate to environment and development.
 The ASCEND recommendations provide a useful relevant
perspective for the future direction of international science.
 Under the challenging heading "What can science do?" the ASCEND
report points out that Earth is the only celestial body where human
life is known to exist and will remain habitable only as long as the
Planet maintains its unique life-support resources. The land, oceans
and atmosphere are interconnected and interact through
biogeochemical cycles of water and nutrients that together form the
earth's highly complex state. Investigations have shown how human
activities have changed the planet's life-support system and put
sustainable development of present and future generations at serious
risk.
 The principal adverse human activities and interventions include:
rapid population growth, excessive resource exploitation, agricultural
and industrial technologies, fossil fuel combustions that disturb the
planet's climatic systems.
 Rio Declaration 1992
 Eradication of poverty worldwide, and in particular the
needs of the least developed countries, is the top priority
and the responsibility of all States and all people.
 States have “common but differentiated responsibilities”
to achieve sustainable development – developed
countries must reduce & eliminate unsustainable
patterns of production & consumption, developing
countries must pursue appropriate demographic policies.
 Right to develop must be fulfilled so as to meet the
needs of present & future generations.
The Earth Summit Agreements
 In Rio, Governments — 108 represented by heads of State or
Government — adopted three major agreements aimed at
changing the traditional approach to development:
 (1) Agenda 21 — a comprehensive programme of action for
global action in all areas of sustainable development;
 (2) The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development — a
series of principles defining the rights and responsibilities of
States;
 (3) The Statement of Forest Principles — a set of principles to
underlie the sustainable management of forests worldwide.
In addition, two legally binding Conventions aimed at preventing
global climate change and the eradication of the diversity of
biological species were opened for signature at the Summit:
 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
and
 The Convention on Biological Diversity
..
 What is Agenda 21?
 “Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We
are confronted with a perpetuation of disparities
between and within nations, a worsening of poverty,
hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing
deterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend for
our well-being. However, integration of environment
and development concerns and greater attention to them
will lead to the fulfilment of basic needs, improved
living standards for all, better protected and managed
ecosystems and a safer more prosperous future. No one
nation can achieve this on its own; but together we can
- in a global partnership for sustainable development.”
Agenda 21, paragraph 1.1
 Agenda 21
 Agenda 21 contains detailed proposals for action in social and
economic areas such as combating poverty, changing patterns of
production and consumption and for conserving and managing the
natural resources that are the basis for life — protecting the
atmosphere, oceans and biodiversity; preventing deforestation; and
promoting sustainable agriculture.
 Governments agreed that the integration of environment and
development concerns will lead to the fulfilment of basic needs,
improved standards for all, better protected and better managed
ecosystems and a safer and a more prosperous future.
 The programme of action also recommends ways to strengthen the
part played by major groups — women, trade unions, farmers,
children and young people, indigenous peoples, the scientific
community, local authorities, business, industry and non-
governmental organizations in achieving sustainable development.
 ..

 ..

Social Environment
al
SD

Economic
 Agenda 21 continued…
 The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development supports Agenda 21
by defining the rights and responsibilities of States regarding these issues.
Among its principles:
 That human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development.
They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature;
 That scientific uncertainty should not delay measures to prevent
environmental degradation where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage;
 That States have a sovereign right to exploit their own resources but not to
cause damage to the environment of other States;
 That eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in worldwide standards of
living are “indispensable” for sustainable development;
 That the full participation of women is essential for achieving sustainable
development; and
 That the developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in
the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures
their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and
financial resources
 Agenda 21 continued…
 Three bodies were created within the United Nations to ensure full
support for implementation of Agenda 21 worldwide:

 The UN Commission on Sustainable Development , which first met

in June 1993;

 The Inter-agency Committee on Sustainable Development , set up by

the Secretary-General in 1992 to ensure effective system-wide
cooperation and coordination in the follow-up to the Summit; and

 The High-level Advisory Board on Sustainable Development ,

established in 1993 to advise the Secretary-General and the
Commission on issues relating to the implementation of Agenda 21.
 Agenda 21 continued…

 UN Commission on Sustainable Development : The Earth

Summit called on the General Assembly to establish the
Commission under the Economic and Social Council as a means
of supporting and encouraging action by Governments, business,
industry and other non-governmental groups to bring about the
social and economic changes needed for sustainable
development.
 Each year, the Commission reviews implementation of the Earth
Summit agreements, provides policy guidance to Governments
and major groups involved in sustainable development
 It also promotes dialogue and builds partnerships between
Governments and the major groups which are seen as key to
achieving sustainable development worldwide.
 History of Sustainable Development
1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring".
– This book brought together research on toxicology, ecology and
epidemology to suggest that agricultural pesticides were building to
catastrophic levels.
– This was linked to damage to animal species and to human health.
– It shattered the assumption that the environment had an infinite
capacity to absorb pollutants.

 1968 - The Club of Rome, is established by 36 European economists and

scientists. Its goal is to pursue a holistic understanding of the 'world
problematique'. It commissions a study on global proportions to model
and analyse the dynamic interactions between industrial production,
population, environmental damage, food consumption and natural
resource usage.

–
 History of Sustainable Development
 1969 - Friends of the Earth forms as a non-profit
organization dedicated to protecting the planet
from environmental degradation; preserving
biological, cultural, and ethnic diversity; and
empowering citizens to have an influential voice
in decisions affecting the quality of their
environment -- and their lives.

 1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada and

launches an aggressive agenda to stop
environmental damage through civil protests and
non-violent interference.
 History of Sustainable Development
 1971 International Institute for Environment and
Development (IIED) is established in Britain with a
mandate to seek ways to make economic progress
without destroying the environmental resource base .

 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human

Environment, Stockholm. ‘Only one Earth’ - led to
the development of The United Nations Environment
programme (UNEP)
 History of Sustainable Development
 1972 Club of Rome publishes "Limits to Growth" (Meadows et.al)
report
– Best seller in several languages.
– It described the use of a computer model –World 3 - to study
the implications of continuing exponential growth in five
interconnected trends of global concern: industrialisation,
population, growth, widespread malnutrition, depletion of non-
renewable resources and ecological damage.
– The report adopts a pessimistic view of development, warning
of severe resource shortages if development were to maintain
its current momentum.
– Extremely controversial - Northern countries criticising it for
not including technological solutions and Southern countries
criticising it because it advocates abandonment of economic
development.
 History of Sustainable Development
 1974 Rowland and Molina release seminal work on CFCs in Nature
magazine.
– They calculated that if human use of CFC gases was to continue
at an unaltered rate the ozone layer would be depleted by many
percent after some decades.

 1983 establishment of The World Commission on Environment and

Development. The commission works for 3 years to weave together a
report on social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues.

 1984 Worldwatch Institute publishes its first State of the World

Report.
– The report monitors changes in the global resource base, focusing
particularly on how changes there affect the economy.
– It concludes that "we are living beyond our means, largely by
borrowing against the future."
 History of Sustainable Development
 1985 Antarctic ozone hole discovered by British and American
scientists.
 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development
publish - Our Common Future (The Bruntland Report) – in
response to the request from the UN general assembly to propose
long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable
development by the year 2000.
 1987 Montreal Protocol – focused on the depletion of the
stratospheric ozone layer and eliminating substances that cause
this (HCFCs).
– Has since been strengthened twice - London and Copenhagen.
– Production of CFCs in North stopped by 1996, countries in
the South (China and India) to end production by 2006.
 History of Sustainable Development
 1988 Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
– Resulted in the framework convention on climate change
signed by 153 countries + the then EU, dealing with the
threat of global warming
– Thought lacked firm agreements on targets, did aim to
stabilise 1990 levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases
 1992 Meadows, D. B., Meadows, D. L. and Randers, J.,
Beyond the Limits, London: Earthscan.
– Using a computer model to map patterns of growth, the
report concluded that environmental collapse was inevitable.
– 'If the present growth trends on world population,
industrialisation, pollution, food production and resource
depletion remain unchanged, the limits to growth on this
planet will be reached some time within the next 100 years'.
 History of Sustainable Development
 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – The
Earth Summit. 179 countries participated in this conference
working towards reconciling the impact of human socio-
economic activities on the environment. Outcomes:
– Convention on biological diversity
– Framework convention on climatic change
– Principles of forest management
– Agenda 21
– The Rio declaration on environment and development
 History of Sustainable Development
 1997 Kyoto Protocol – Worlds Governments met in Japan to
negotiate a treaty to start dealing seriously with climate change – to
reduce emissions of serious greenhouse gases.
 1997 - Earth Summit+5 - A five year review of Earth Summit
progress was made by the United Nations General Assembly.
– The final document adopted by delegates from over 165
countries -- while taking small steps forward on a number of
issues, including preventing climate change, forest loss and
freshwater scarcity - disappointed many in that it contained few
new concrete commitments on action needed.
 2001 – Climate Summit, Bonn – 178 countries developed a
framework of how to implement the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
 2002 - Earth Summit 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa. Rio+10 -
World Summit on Sustainable Development -‘people, planet,
prosperity’,
 Sustainable Development
 • “Putting sustainable development into practice
demands debate, experimentation and continuous
learning and therefore requires a thriving democracy
to allow it to evolve and flourish… Sustainable
development should be the organising principle of all
democratic societies, underpinning all other goals,
policies and processes” (Sustainable Development
Commission UK)
 • "Sustainable Development Means The Ability To
Meet Our Own Needs Without Prejudicing The
Ability Of Future Generations To Meet Their Own
Needs." – UN World Commission on Environment
and Development 1987 (The Brundtland Report)
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development (Principles)
 (1) Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature.
 (2) States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United
Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right
to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental
and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that
activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to
the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.
 (3) The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably
meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future
generations.
 (4) In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental
protection shall constitute an integral part of the development
process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development (Principles)
 (5) All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of
eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of
living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the
world.
 (6) The special situation and needs of developing countries,
particularly the least developed and those most environmentally
vulnerable, shall be given special priority.
 (7) States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to
conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's
ecosystem.
 (8) To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life
for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable
patterns of production and consumption.
 (9) improving scientific understanding through exchanges of
scientific and technological knowledge.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development (Principles)
 (10) Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of
all concerned citizens.
 (11) States shall enact effective environmental legislation.
 (12) States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open
international economic system that would lead to economic growth
and sustainable development in all countries.
 (13) States shall develop national law regarding liability and
compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental
damage.
 (14) States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the
relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and
substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are
found to be harmful to human health.
 (15) In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach
shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development (Principles)
 (16) polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of
pollution, with due regard to the public interest.
 (18) States shall immediately notify other States of any
natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to
produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of
those States.
 (19) States shall provide prior and timely notification and
relevant information to potentially affected States on
activities that may have a significant adverse
transboundary environmental effect.
 (20) Women have a vital role in environmental
management and development. Their full participation is
therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.
 Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development (Principles)
 (21) The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the
world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in
order to achieve sustainable development and ensure a
better future for all.
 (24) Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable
development. States shall therefore respect international
law providing protection for the environment in times of
armed conflict and cooperate in its further development, as
necessary.
 (25) Peace, development and environmental protection are
interdependent and indivisible.
 (26) States shall resolve all their environmental disputes
peacefully and by appropriate means in accordance with
the Charter of the United Nations.
 ..

PEOPLE

ENVIRONMENT DEVELOPMENT
Kyoto Protocol
..
 Kyoto Protocol
 It is the developed countries whose emissions since the
Industrial Revolution have caused the climate change
problem we are currently facing.
 It is therefore the responsibility of the developed
countries to take action first. Many developing countries
are already taking substantial action to reduce their
emissions growth, and some have done much more to
reduce their emissions than many industrialised nations.
 Developing countries should not be expected to take on
board commitments to limit their emission growth until
the industrialised countries have met their
responsibility.
 Some Facts regarding Kyoto
Protocol
 Climate has changed over the past century
– Global temperature has increased .5-1 degree F
– Global sea level has risen 4-10 inches
– Global precipitation over land has increased 1%
 • “The balance of evidence suggests a discernible
human influence on global climate” (IPCC, 1995)
 • Climate is expected to continue to change in the
future
– Projected temperature increase of 3.6 degree F
by 2100
– Projected sea level rise of 20 inches by 2100
– Likely increase in precipitation intensity
UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK
CONVENTION ON CLIMATE
CHANGE
 UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON
CLIMATE CHANGE Rio de Janeiro : June 1992:

 ARTICLE 2: OBJECTIVE: The ultimate objective of this

Convention .... is to achieve, .… stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous interference with the climate system.

 Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient:

• to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change.
• to ensure that food production is not threatened, and
• to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable
manner.
 Kyoto protocol (Historical Aspect)
 International concern over the environmental impacts of the world's
uncontrolled use of coal, oil and gas has grown in the second half of
the twentieth century.
 The damage caused to plants, animals and buildings by acid rain
and the effects on human health of poor air quality and smog have
led to a raft of national, regional and international agreements aimed
at controlling these problems by cutting emissions of the gases.
 In the mid-1980s, awareness began to increase of yet another
problem caused by fossil fuels - climate change, also known as
global warming or the greenhouse effect.
 The warming gases (known as greenhouse gases) given off when
fossil fuels are burnt are increasing in the atmosphere, leading to
rises in global temperature and sea levels.
 The most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO2).
Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today are
already 30 per cent higher than the levels which existed before the
Industrial Revolution
 Kyoto protocol (Historical Aspect)
 In late 1988, two United Nations agencies, the UN
Environment Programme and the World Meteorological
Organisation, set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). This brought together scientific experts from
all over the world to assess the science of climate change, its
impacts and the strategies needed to respond to it.
 The IPCC's first report, known as the First Assessment Report,
was agreed in August 1990: “We are certain ... emissions
resulting from human activities are substantially increasing
the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases...
These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting
on average in an additional warming of the Earth’s surface ...”
“we predict ... a rate of increase of global mean temperature
during the next century... greater than that seen over the past
10,000 years.”
 Kyoto protocol
 The new protocol, known officially as the Kyoto Protocol
to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,
was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on 11 December 1997 at the
third Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC.
 The Kyoto Protocol is significant because it introduces,
for the first time, legally binding greenhouse gas
emission commitments for the developed countries. The
commitments agreed to should, according to the Protocol,
lead to an overall global reduction of at least five per cent
in 1990 levels of greenhouse gases by 2008-2012
 The three industrial global warming gases controlled
under the Kyoto Protocol are hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6). Other are Methane (CH4), CO2,
nitrous oxide (N2O).
 Kyoto protocol
 National greenhouse gas inventories provide the basis for the
Kyoto Protocol, adopted by the FCCC Parties at their third
conference in 1997

 The Kyoto Protocol establishes legally binding commitments

for the reduction of six greenhouse gases (carbon
( dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride,
hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons) produced by "
Annex I" (industrialized) nations, as well as general
commitments for all member countries

 Kyoto set global and national GHG emission reduction targets

through 2012 based on 1990 baseline. On average reductions
of 5.2%
 'Differentiated' commitments for
developed countries
 The emissions targets for the developed countries are different -
in other words, there is no single target which is the same for all
developed countries.
 The USA, for example, has to reduce its emissions by seven per
cent.
 The European Union and most of the Central and Eastern
European countries have to reduce their emissions by eight per
cent,
 Poland and Hungary by six per cent and Croatia by five per cent.
 Canada and Japan's target is a six per cent reduction.
 Scandalously, some countries are being allowed to increase their
emissions, having argued that reductions would have an adverse
impact on their national economies. These are Australia (an eight
per cent increase), Norway (one per cent) and Iceland (ten per
cent).
 Kyoto protocol
 Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol defines a Clean
Development Mechanism, which can be used by
major polluting countries to invest in projects that
reduce emissions in developing countries as an
alternative to more expensive emission reductions in
their own countries.

 Kyoto allows major developed countries to meet their

greenhouse gas emission limitation by purchasing
GHG emission reductions from elsewhere. (“ Joint
Implementation” ).
 Kyoto protocol
 The concept of sustainable development dates back a long way
but it was at the UN Conference on Human Environment
(Stockholm, 1972) that the international community met for
the first time to consider global environment and development
needs.
• The 20th anniversary of Stockholm took place in 1992 in Rio
de Janeiro. The UN Conference on Environment and
Development, the "Earth Summit", agreed on Agenda 21 and
the Rio Declaration.
• The Summit brought environment and development issues
firmly into the public arena. Along with the Rio Declaration
and Agenda 21 it led to agreement on two legally binding
conventions: Biological Diversity and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (FCCC).
 Annex A

 Greenhouse gases
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 Methane (CH4)

 Nitrous oxide (N2O)

 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

 Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

 Annex A
 Sectors/source categories Energy, Fuel combustion,
Energy industries, Manufacturing industries and
construction, Transport, Other sectors, Fugitive
emissions from fuels, Solid fuels, Oil and natural gas,
Other , Industrial processes, Mineral products,
Chemical industry, Metal production, Other production,
Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride,
Consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride,
Solvent and other product use, Agriculture, Enteric
fermentation, Manure management, Rice cultivation,
Agricultural soils, Prescribed burning of savannas,
Field burning of agricultural residues, Other, Waste,
Solid waste disposal on land, Wastewater handling,
Waste incineration, etc.
 Kyoto protocol
 The Protocol requires most developed countries to achieve
their commitment using 1990 as a reference, or base year.

 Under the UNFCCC, countries with economies in transition

(the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern European
countries) were allowed to choose a different base year
because their emissions were declining by 1990, resulting in a
lower emissions baseline.

 Emissions in the base year are calculated as the total amount

of greenhouse gases resulting from the following sectors or
sources: energy, industrial processes, solvent and other
product use, agriculture and waste. These are known as 'gross'
emissions
 Kyoto protocol
 The Protocol allows developed countries to achieve their
commitments in four ways:
 (1) joint fulfilment, or 'bubble' agreements between developed
countries (Article 4 of the Protocol),
 (2) Joint Implementation (JI) between developed countries (Article
6),
 (3) emissions trading between developed countries (Article 17)
 (4) through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
established under Article 12. Under the CDM the developed
countries can fund projects in developing countries which bring
about reductions in the greenhouse gases which would have been
emitted in those countries if the project had not taken place. The
developed countries can add these emissions 'credits' to their
assigned amounts.
 The first three all involve the developed countries, that is, countries
with legally binding commitments, and so although emissions are
transferred between these countries, the overall global assigned
amount (the "at least five per cent" reduction) is not changed.
Joint Fulfilment of Commitments
 Article 4 of the Protocol allows developed countries to fulfil their
emission commitments jointly.
 This means that a group of countries can agree among themselves
what their individual commitments can be so long as the total
emissions which result do not exceed the total emissions commitment
of that group of countries.
 Under this article, each country in such a group has to declare its new
emission commitment and this becomes its legally binding obligation.
 The country is then allowed to achieve its new assigned amount using
the flexibility mechanisms.
 If the group as a whole fails to meet its combined emissions
commitment, only the country or countries which caused the failure
by overshooting their individual declared emission commitment are
deemed to be out of compliance.
 Example: The individual member states of the European Union have
agreed their individual emission commitments. Together these add up
to the EU's 8 per cent reduction commitment. The agreement is
known as 'the EU bubble.
 Joint Implementation
 Joint implementation was first proposed in 1991 during the
negotiations on the Climate Convention by developed
countries which had already introduced measures to limit
growth in their emissions (primarily through energy efficiency
and renewable energy programmes).
 The paying country becomes the 'donor' country, while the
country in which the project takes place becomes the 'host'
country.
 The result would be cuts in emissions for which the donor
country would get the credit.
 As originally envisaged, JI could be between two countries
with targets or between a donor country with a target and a
host country without a target.
 Emissions Trading
 Article 17 of the Protocol states that the
industrialized country Parties may achieve their
commitments using emissions trading.
 Emissions trading works by setting a legally
binding limit on each Party's emissions (the
assigned amount) and then permitting Parties to
trade part of this.
 After all trading is finished the total sum of
emissions (assigned amounts) should equal the
total sum before any trading began.
 In other words trading re-distributes the allowed
emissions from one Party to another but keeps
the total emissions within the originally agreed
limit.
 Emissions Trading
 no country would be allowed to achieve its commitment solely
through buying unused emissions and do nothing to reduce its
emissions at home.
 A requirement to reduce emissions at home is essential in
industrialized countries to reverse wasteful energy consumption
patterns and bring about an expansion in energy efficiency
technology and renewable energy systems throughout the whole
world.
 In any case, allowing domestic emissions to increase unchecked by
relying on emissions trading to achieve commitments is a dangerous
strategy.
 At some point in the near future, sources of unused assigned
amounts are likely to become unavailable as future emissions
reduction commitments increase and as energy demand grows in
countries like Russia and the Ukraine which once had emissions to
sell.
 Countries which relied heavily on emissions trading initially would
be placed at a serious competitive disadvantage as the supply of
available emissions credits decreased.
 The UN World Summit on
Sustainable Development
[WSSD]
 The WSSD was convened in 2002 in Johannesburg ostensibly
to review and determine progress since 1992 in effective
implementation to the Rio Earth Summit Principles and
recommendations set out in Agenda 21.
 The published proceedings of WSSD consist of two
documents: the Political Declaration; the Plan of
Implementation (a variety of new programmes were proposed:
 "sustainable development in a globalising world";
 "health and sustainable development";
 "sustainable development of small island states";
 "sustainable development for Africa", )

The Political Declaration
Statements under "The challenge we face" suggest that little progress has
been made towards eradication or significant alleviation of inequities
between rich and poor, or of the environmental degradations described
by Pearson, Brandt and Brundtland and reiterated at the Earth Summit:
 (a) "The deep fault-line that divides human society between the rich and
the poor, and the ever increasing gap between the developed and the
developing world pose a major threat to global prosperity, security and
stability."
 (b) "The global environment continues to suffer; loss of biodiversity
continues, fish stocks are being depleted, desertification claims more and
more fertile land, the adverse effects of climate change are already
evident, natural disasters are more frequent and more devastating,
developing countries are more vulnerable, air, water and marine pollution
robs millions of a decent life."
 This document begins with the reaffirmation by the assembled nations of
their commitment to sustainable development, to the building of a
humane, equitable and caring international society. It assumes a
collective responsibility to strengthen the 'interdependent pillars of
sustainable development' – economic, social and environmental
protection
 ..

Global Warming
 What is Global Warming?
 Global Warming is the theory that we as humans are
increasing greenhouse gases (the thick layer of gases
that catches the sun’s rays and heats the earth)
through industrialization causing more gases and
increasing the amount of sunlight that gets caught and
heats the Earth.
 The alarmist viewpoint is that global warming and
pollution from CO2 emissions are adding to
greenhouse gases so significantly that the Earth is
warming up and will continue to warm.
 Effects of Global Warming
 Alarmist believe that this increase in
temperature will eventually cause the
melting of the ice caps. This melting could
increase the oceans height by up to 2 feet
in only one century.
 This would mean many heavily populated
costal cities would flood causing millions
maybe billions of dollars and damage and
the potential loss of life in these cities.
Other Effects from Global Warming
 The alarmist believe that there are also other effects
to global warming such as natural disasters have been
increasing, disease have been spreading more rapidly,
and animals have been found migrating towards the
poles due to the increase in heat.
 At least 279 species of plants and animals are already
responding to global warming, moving closer to the
poles.
 The number of category 4 and 5 hurricanes have
almost doubled in the last 30 years.
 Future Effects of Global Warming
 Deaths from global warming will double in just 25
years, to 300,000 people a year.
 Global sea levels could rise by more than 20 feet with
the loss of shelf ice in Greenland and Antarctica,
devastating costal areas worldwide.
 Heat waves will be more frequent and intense.
 Droughts and wildfires will occur more often.
 The Arctic Ocean could be ice free by 2050.
 More than a million species could be driven to
extinction by 2050.
Ozone Layer
 What is Ozone?
 Ozone (O3) is a highly-reactive from of oxygen.
 Unlike oxygen (O2), ozone has a strong scent and is
blue in color.
 Ozone exists within both the tropospheric and
stratospheric zones of the Earth’s atmosphere
 In the troposphere, ground level ozone is a major air
pollutant and primary constituent of photochemical
smog
 In the stratosphere, the ozone layer is an essential
protector of life on earth as it absorbs harmful UV
radiation before it reaches the earth.
 Facts about Ozone
 The ozone layer sits in the stratosphere approximately 25km
above the Earth.
 It is made up of ozone gases that act like a blanket to stop too
much UV radiation from the sun entering the atmosphere.
 As UV radiation hits the Ozone layer the ozone gas absorbs the
radiation and turns it into oxygen.
 The Ozone layer prevents the harmful UV radiation entering the
Earth, which is vital because too much of these UV rays can
cause cancer, cataracts and DNA damage.
 Small amounts of ozone are constantly being made by the action
of sunlight on oxygen. At the same time, ozone is being broken
down by natural and unnatural processes that lead to ozone
depletion. If this process is greater than the production of ozone
then the ozone layer becomes thinner and less effective.
 Facts about Ozone
Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between production
and destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of
destruction.The destruction of the Ozone layer is caused due to
main factor which is:
 The release of chemicals which contain chlorine and bromine
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) into the atmosphere by
human activity.
 CFC’s are released into the atmosphere through the use of
aerosols and cooling systems in fridges. The CFC’s released into
the atmosphere do not break down and therefore remain stable
within the atmosphere for between 20 and 120 years.
 The chlorine contained within these CFC’s break down the ozone
gases in the ozone layer which further increases Ozone depletion.
 Emissions of CFC’s have accounted for roughly 80% of total
stratospheric ozone depletion.
  Chlorofluorocarbons
are created and used
in refrigerators and
..

air conditioners.
These
chlorofluorocarbons
are not harmful to
humans and have
been a benefit to us.
Once released into
the atmosphere,
chlorofluorocarbons
are bombarded and
destroyed by
ultraviolet rays. In the
process chlorine is
released to destroy
 Harmful effects of UV rays on
people
 Skin cancer
 Premature aging (photoaging) of the
skin (different from normal
chronological aging)
 Cataracts
and eye disorders (corneal
sunburn and blindness)
 Immune system damage
..
 Important happenings regarding
ozone layer depletion
 Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland showed in
1974 that CFC gases destroy ozone
 Coordinating committee on Ozone Layer (CCOL)
established by UNEP in the 1970’s
 Vienna Convention for the protection of the ozone
layer held in 1985
 Montreal Protocol to ban substances that deplete the
ozone layer held in 1987
 Amendments to the Montreal Protocol: London -
1990, Copenhagen - 1992 and Montreal - 1997.