MAGNETISM

MAGNETIC FIELD
MAGNETIC FIELD
• Magnetic field refers to the region around a magnet where magnetic
effects can essentially be experienced.
• We know that any magnet has two poles namely, the North Pole and
South Pole.
• The magnetic field lines are directed away from the North Pole to the
South Pole (i.e., the direction of the electric field is given by the
direction in which a North pole would move under the influence of
that field if it were placed at that point). A magnetic field line is also
known as a line of force.
• Remember that like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Campass needles can be used to trace the magnetic
field lines in the region outside a bar magnet
Magnetic field pattern can be displayed with
iron fillings sprinkled on paper near magnets
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
• For us to understand magnetic effects of current, let us briefly look at
Orstead experiment.
• Orstead placed a current carrying wire near a magnetic compass (see
Figure below).
MAGNETIC FIELDS OF CURRENT
CONDUCTING WIRES (Oersted
experiment)
The magnetic effects of current (Orstead
experiment)
• When switch S was closed he observed detection of the compass
needle. When the polarity of the power supply was reversed, the
detection of the compass needle also had its direction reversed.
Consequently, he concluded that:
• (1) When the switch S was closed the magnetic field was induced.
• (2) When the switch was opened the induced magnetic field vanished.
• (3) Current currying wire created a magnetic field.
Thus, any conductor carrying electric current is surrounded by
magnetic led.
THE RIGHT- HAND GRIP RULE
• The right hand rule helps us to identify the direction of the induced
magnetic field in a conductor that is currying current.
• The right hand rule States that if your right hand is used to hold a
conductor such that the thumb points in the direction of current, then
the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)
• The magnetic flux density represents the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field.
• The magnetic flux density is also known as magnetic induction. Its SI unit
is tesla (T).
• The direction of the magnetic flux density is tangential to the magnetic
field lines at that point
• If the field lines are close together, (B) is large
• If the field lines are NOT close together, (B) is small
• If the field lines are parallel, (B) is constant i.e a uniform field
•
MAGNETIC FLUX
• Magnetic flux through a region is a measure of the number of
magnetic field lines passing through the region
• That is, the magnetic flux is a measure of the number of the magnetic
field lines in the region of area A:
• The flux through the area A (in the figure), the normal to which lies at
an angle θ to a field of flux density B, is given by:
=BA
= BAcosθ.
• The unit of the magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb) where 1T = 1Wb/m2
THE MAGNETIC FORCE
• The magnetic force may be thought of as being a force experienced
by the electric current flowing at right angles to the magnetic field, in
which case the force is at right angles to both the magnetic field and
the current.
• The magnetic force has the following effects on the current causing it:
• (1) It tends to separate the parallel currents which are in opposite
direction.
• (2) It tends to bring together the parallel currents which are moving in
the same direction.
Using the figure below, we can come up with
a relationship:
• F ∝ I, F ∝ Lsinθ, F∝B

⇒ F = BILsinθ
• Here, L is length of the conductor, I current and B the magnetic flux
density.
• The proportionality constant is 1.
DETECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FORCE
• The direction of the magnetic force can be found by using Fleming's
left and right hand rules
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
• Fleming's left hand rule is also known as the motor rule. It states; that
if the first and second fingers and the thumb of the left hand are
placed comfortably at right angles to each other, with the First finger
pointing in the direction of the Field and the seCond finger pointing in
the direction of Current, then the thuMb points in the direction of the
force (i.e., the direction in which Motion takes place if the conductor
is free to move)
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE
• Fleming's right hand rule is also called the dynamo rule. It states that;
if the first and second fingers and the thumb of the right hand are
placed comfortably at right angles to each other, with the First finger
pointing in the direction of the Field and the thuMb pointing in the
direction of Motion, then the seCond finger points in the direction of
the induced Current. This rule is used in the analysis of
electromagnetic induction
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
• This is the study of the magnetic effects associated with the electric
current flowing in a conductor.
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• When a piece of magnet is moved to and fro through a coil, the
magnetic field lines tend to cut (when expanding) and re-cut (when
collapsing) the coil.
• As a result, an electromotive force is induced in the coil such that if a
milliameter is connected, a smaller reading may be shown.
• Emf can also be induced when a conductor is moved in a magnetic
field.
• This effect is therefore called electromagnetic induction and was first
studied by Faraday followed by Henry in 1831.
A simple experiment showing that current is induced
when a magnet is moved toward or away from the loop
FLUX - LINKAGE
• Experiments show that the magnitude of the EMF depends on the
rate at which the flux through the coil changes.
• It also depends on the number of turns, N on the coil
• Flux-linkage is defined as the product of the number of turns and the
flux through the coil i.e
Flux linkage = NФ where
N = Number of turns in the coil
Ф = Magnetic flux
Take note of the following:
• (1) It is not necessary that a conductor is in a form of a coil in order
for it to be able to acquire an induced EMF. An EMF can be induced in
a straight conductor whenever it is caused to cut across magnetic
field lines
• (2) The magnitude of the EMF is proportional to the rate of cutting
• (3) EMF is induced when the flux through a coil changes
• (4) The SI unit of the induced electromotive force is a Weber per
• second (Wb/s)
THE LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
• A detailed investigation of electromagnetic induction leads to two
laws (Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws)
FARADAY’S LAW
• Faraday's law states that:
the magnitude of the induced electromotive force (E) in a circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the flux-linkage or the rate of cutting
of magnetic flux
In other words, the induced electro-motive force (E) across a conductor
is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux cuts the conductor.
LENZ’S LAW
• Lenz’s law states that:
the direction of the induced EMF is such that the current which it
causes to flow (or would flow in a closed circuit) opposes the change
which is causing it
NEUMANN’S EQUATION
• The two laws (Faraday’s and Lenz’s) can be expressed as Neumann’s
equation:

where the induced EMF is E and the rate of change of flux-linkage

in webers per second is
The minus sign in Neumann’s equation
• The minus sign in the Neumann’s equation takes account of Lenz’s
law, which indicates that the induced current flows in such a sense as
to create a flux in the opposite direction to that in which the external
flux has increased i.e the current flows in such a direction as to
oppose the change which has taken place
EMF INDUCED IN A STRAIGHT
CONDUCTOR
• The EMF induced in a straight conductor (not a coil) is given by the
following equation:

where E = induced EMF, B = flux density, L = length of the straight

conductor, v = velocity of the moving conductor
Reading Assignment
• (1) Read on how you can derive the formula
from Faraday’s law
(2) Look at the example 31.1 on page 938 of Serway
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF EMF
INDUCTION
• EMF induction has many practical applications
GENERATOR
• An electrical generator does the opposite of a motor in the sense that
it uses motion to produce electrical energy, i.e., it changes chemical
energy to kinetic energy and converts the kinetic energy to electrical
energy.
• READ MORE ON GENERATORS
SELF – INDUCTION AND INDUCTANCE
• A coil through which current is flowing has an associated magnetic
field
• If for any reason the current changes, then too does the magnetic flux
and the EMF is induced in the coil
• When EMF is induced in a coil by a change in the current through the
same coil, it (the process) is called self –induction
• In accordance with Lenz’s law, the EMF opposes the change that has
induced it and it is therefore known as a back EMF
• If the current is increasing, the back EMF opposes the increase and if
the current is decreasing, the back EMF opposes the decrease
SELF-INDUCTION IN A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
INDUCTANCE
• Inductance is the measure of the ability of a coil to give rise to a back
EMF
• Inductance is defined as:
where

= the back EMF induced in the coil (V)

the self inductance of the coil. The unit of self-inductance
is the henry (H)
= the rate of change of current in the coil )
DEFINING THE HENRY (H)
• A coil has a self- inductance of one henry (H) if the back EMF in it is
one volt when the current through it is changing at one ampere per
second
Note the following:
• (1) The back EMF opposes the current change, and therefore the
inclusion of the minus sign in the equation makes a positive
constant
• (2) The value of depends on the dimensions of the coil, the number
of turns and permeability of the core material
AN ALTERNATIVE DEFINATION FOR
SELF- INDUCTANCE ()
• If we consider a closely spaced coil of ( a toroid or an ideal solenoid)
carrying current and containing Faraday’s law tells us that:

Combining with the equation

we obtain
THE RL CIRCUITS
• If a circuit contains a coil such as a solenoid, the inductance of the coil prevents the
current in the circuit from increasing or decreasing instantaneously.
• A circuit element that has a large inductance is called an inductor
• The circuit symbol for an inductor is:

NB: Keep in mind, however, that even a circuit without a coil has some inductance
that can affect the circuit’s behavior.
THE RL CIRCUITS
• Because the inductance of an inductor results in a back EMF, an
inductor in a circuit opposes changes in the current in that circuit.
• The inductor attempts to keep the current the same as it was before
the change occurred
• The inductor opposes the instantaneous change in current
• A circuit in which the elements connected to a battery are a resistor
and an inductor is called an RL circuit
RL CIRCUITS

• When S is closed, the current build –up is opposed by the back EMF
induced in the coil, and the current takes a considerable time to reach
its equilibrium value
RL CIRCUITS
• If at time the current in the circuit is , the back EMF is given by and
using Kirchohoff’s second rule in the circuit, we have

To solve for , we have two situations that are of particular interest

(i) = 0 when and the solution of the equation can be shown to
be )
RL CIRCUITS
• (ii) We assume that the current has already reached its equilibrium
value, when then the solution to the equation can be shown to be
EXAMPLE: RL CIRCUITS
• A coil with inductance of 20H and a resistance of 10Ω is connected in
series with a battery of EMF 12V and a switch. Calculate
(a) Rate of change of current immediately after the switch is closed
(b) The final current
(c) The current after 3.0 seconds
(d) How long after the switch is closed will the current be 0.4A?
ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

• Consider a coil of self-inductance

• Suppose that at a time the current in the coil is in the process of
building up to its equilibrium value at a rate .
• The magnitude, E, of the back EMF is given by the equation

• The current works at a rate in overcoming this back EMF, where

and therefore

• The work done in a small time interval is therefore given by

ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR
• The total work done, (energy stored in an inductor) as the current
increases from can be found by letting and intergrating. Thus

i.e
i.e
• NB: A battery in a circuit containing an inductor must provide more
energy than one in a circuit without the inductor.
EXAMPLE: ENERGY STORED IN AN
INDUCTOR
• A coil with a resistance of 6Ω and an inductance of 30mH is
connected to a 12 V supply. What is the energy stored in the coil
when the current has reached its equilibrium value?
READING ASSIGNMENT
• Take time to read on non-inductive coils
MUTUAL INDUCTION
• If two coils are close together, then a changing current in one coil (the
primary) sets up a changing magnetic field at the site of the other
(the secondary) and so induces an EMF in it.
• This effect is called mutual induction
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
• Mutual inductance (M) of a pair of coils is defined by:
where

= the back EMF induced in the secondary coil (V)

= the rate of change of current in the primary coil ()
= the mutual inductance of the pair of coils.

• The unit for mutual inductance is the henry (H)

Note the following
• It can be shown that if all the flux produced by the primary coil passes
through the secondary coil, then
where and are self-inductances of the primary
and secondary coils
EXAMPLE: MUTUAL INDUCTION
• The mutual inductance of a pair of coils is 0.36H. Find the EMF
induced across the secondary coil when the current in the primary is
reduced from 3.5A to zero at a steady rate over a period of 3.0s
TRANSFORMER
• A transformer is an electrical device that changes voltage from one value to
another.
• It consists of two coils namely, the primary coil and secondary coil, which
are not electrically connected. These coils are either one on top of the
other or side by side on an Iron core.
• The transformer works by electromagnetic induction.
• The alternating voltage applied to the primary windings produces the
varying magnetic field which tends to cut and re cut the secondary
windings, thereby inducing an alternating voltage in it.
• The induced voltage may either be larger or smaller than the input voltage
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A
TRANSFORMER
A TRANSFORMER
Note the following
• When the induced voltage (the voltage at the secondary coil) is
greater than the input voltage (voltage at the primary winding) the
transformer is said to be a step up transformer.
• If the induced voltage is smaller than the input voltage the
transformer is said to be a step down transformer.
• The step down transformer has more primary windings than
secondary windings while
• The step up transformer has more secondary windings and fewer
primary windings
THE TRANSFORMER EQUATION
• Assuming that a given transformer is 100% efficient at transferring
electrical energy from the primary to secondary circuit, we can show
that

• Let and be EMF in primary and secondary coils respectively.

• From Neumann’s equation:
and
• Dividing the two equations, we get
POWER EQUATION IN A
TRANSFORMER
• If the transformer steps up the potential difference the current is
stepped down in proportion and vice versa.
• This is true on the assumption that all the electrical energy given to
the primary circuit appears in the secondary circuit.
• We know that power = voltage × current.
• The power at the primary coils is and
the power at the secondary coil is So:
where and are the input and out put
current respectively.
EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
• Efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

• Efficiency is given in %
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• An ideal transformer is the one that is 100% efficient (i.e., it has zero
power loss).
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
TRANSFORMER
• Zero winding resistance
• Winding resistance refers to the resistance to the flow of current offered
by a coiled wire in the transformer. In normal circumstances, we expect
to have some power loss due to such resistance. For an ideal transformer
the winding resistance is essentially zero implying no power is lost.
• Infinite inductance
• In an ideal transformer the inductance is infinite (too large). Thus the
back electromotive force is equal to the supply voltage. Consequently,
there is no current in the primary coil when the secondary circuit is an
open circuit hence no power loss.
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
TRANSFORMER
• Perfect coupling between windings
• When the windings of the transformer are perfectly coupled almost
all the magnetic field generated by the primary winding cuts the
secondary winding without losses and vice versa.
• No eddy current
• When the magnetic field lines cut and re cut the windings of a
transformer some current is induced in the iron core, and it this
current that we call eddy current.
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
TRANSFORMER
• Zero capacitance between turns
• Normally, if the coil is wound so that there exists some space between
turns a capacitor is formed with air as the dielectric. Consequently,
some energy of the transformer is lost due to capacitance.
• For an ideal transformer the spaces between turns are negligible.
Hence energy is not lost.
Example- Inducing an emf in a coil