Introduction

• Loads due to normal running conditions:

– Vehicle transverse on uneven ground.
– Manoeuver performed by driver.
• Five basic load cases:
– Bending case
– Torsion case
– Combined bending and torsion
– Lateral loading
– Fore and aft loading
 Bending Payload

Occupants
• Due to loading in Fuel tank
Engine
vertical (X‐Z) plane.
• Due to weight
of components
along the vehicle
frame. Wheels/
Suspension
braking
• Static condition vehicle
structure can be
treated
– Vehicle isasapproximately
2‐D symmetric in x‐y
plane.
beam.
• Unsprung mass
– Components lie below chassis
– Do not impose loads in static condition.
Bending moment/ Shear force diagram of a typical
passenger vehicle
 Bending
• Dynamic loading:
– Inertia of the structure contributes in total loading
– Always higher than static loading
– Road vehicles: 2.5 to 3 times static loads
– Off road vehicles: 4 times static loads
• Example: m
g

– Static loads
• Vehicle at rest .
• Moving at a constant velocity on a even road.
• Can be solved using static equilibrium
balance. F
– • Resultsloads
Dynamic in set of algebraic equations.
• Vehicle moving on a bumpy road even at constant velocity. m m
g
• Can be solved using dynamic equilibrium balance. a
• Generally results in differential equations.

F
Torsion
• When vehicle traverse on an
uneven road. Rear axle
• Front and rear axles
experiences a moment. Front axle
• Pure simple torsion:
– Torque is applied to one axle
and reacted by other axle.
– Front axle: anti clockwise
torque (front view)
– Rear axle: balances with
clockwise torque
– Results in a torsion moment
about x‐ axis.
• In reality torsion is always
accompanied by bending due
to gravity.
Torsion

Rear axle

Front axle
 Combined bending and torsion

• Bending and torsional loads are super

imposed.
– Loadings are assumed to be
• linear
One wheel of the lightly loaded axle is raised
on a bump result in the other wheel
go off ground.
• All loads of lighter axle is applied to one Bending Torsion
wheel.
• Due to nature of resulting loads, loading
symmetry wrt x‐z plane is lost.
• R’R can be determined from moment
balance.
• R’R stabilizes the structure by increasing the
reaction force on the side where the wheel is
off ground .
• The marked –
– Side is off ground
– Side takes all load of front axle
– Side’s reaction force increases
– Side’s reaction force decreases
to balance the moment.
C
o
m
b
i
Lateral loading
 Lateral loading
• For a modern car t = 1.45 m and h
= 0.51 m.
• Critical lateral acceleration = 1.42
g
• In reality side forces limit lateral
acceleration is limited within 0.75
g.
• Kerb bumping causes high loads
and results in rollover.
• Width of car and reinforcements
provides sufficient bending
stiffness to withstand lateral
forces.
• Lateral shock loads assumed to
be twice the static vertical loads
on wheels.
 Longitudinal loading
• When vehicle accelerates and
decelerates inertia forces were
generated.
• Acceleration – Weight
transferred from front to back.
– Reaction force on front wheel is
given by (taking moment abt RR)

• Deceleration – Weight
transferred from back to front.
– Reaction force on front wheel is
given by
 Longitudinal loading
• Limiting tractive and
braking forces are
decided by coefficient
of friction b/w tires and
road surfaces
• Tractive and braking
forces adds
bending through
suspension.
• Inertia forces adds
additional bending.
 Asymmetric loading
• Results when one wheel strikes
a raised objects or drops into a
pit.
• Resolved as vertical and
Raised
– Speed ofloads.
horizontal vehicle object`
– Suspension
• Magnitude ofstiffness
force depends on
– Wheel mass
– Body mass
• Applied load is a shock wave
– Which has very less time duration
– Hence there is no change in vehicle speed
– Acts through the center of the wheel.
 Asymmetric loading
• Resolved vertical force causes:
– Additional axle load
– Vertical inertia load through CG
– Torsion moment
to maintain dynamic equilibrium.
• Resolved horizontal force
causes:
– Bending in x‐z plane
– Horizontal inertia load through
CG
– Moment about z axis
to maintain dynamic equilibrium.
• Total loading is the
superposition of all four loads.
 Allowable stress
• Vehicle structure is not fully rigid
• Internal resistance or stress is induced to balance
external forces
• Stress should be kept to acceptable limits
• Stress due to static load X dynamic factor ≤ yield stress
– Should not exceed 67% of yield stress.
• Safety factor against yield is 1.5
• Fatigue analysis is needed
– At places of stress concentration
– Eg. Suspension mounting points, seat mounting
points.
 Bending stiffness
• Important in structural stiffness
• Sometimes stiffness is more important than
strength
• Determined by acceptable limits of deflection
of the side frame door mechanisms.
– Excessive deflection will not shut door properly
• Local stiffness of floor is important
– Stiffened by swages pressed into panels
– Second moment of area should be increased
 Bending stiffness
• Thin panels separated by honeycomb
structure reduced vibration
• Local stiffness has to be increased at:
– Door
– Bonnet
– Suspension attach points
– Seating mounting points
– Achieved by reinforcement plates and
brackets.
 Torsional stiffness
• Allowable torsion for a medium sized car: 8000 to 10000 N‐
m/deg
• Measured over the wheel base
• When torsion stiffness is low:
– Structure move up and down and/or whip
– When parked on uneven ground doors fail to close
– Doors fail to close while jacking if jack points are at a corner
• Torsion stiffness is influenced by windscreens
• TS reduces by 40% when windscreens removed
• Open top cars have poor torsional stiffness
• Handling becomes very difficult when torsional stiffness is
low.
 Chassis types‐ Ladder frames
• Used by early motor cars
• Early car’s body frame did not
contribute much for vehicle Cross
structure. beam
– Mostly made of wood which has low
stiffness
• Carried all load (bending and
torsion)
• Advantages:
– Can accommodate large variety of
body shapes and types
– Used in flat platforms, box vans,
tankers and detachable containers Side rails

• Still used in light commercial

vehicles like pick up.
 Chassis types‐ Ladder frames
• Side rails frequently have open
channel section
• Open or closed section cross
beams
• Good bending strength and
stiffness
• Flanges contribute large area
moment of inertia.
• Flanges carry high stress
levels
• Open section : easy access for fixing
brackets and components
• Shear center is offset from the web
• Local twisting of side frame is
avoided
• Load from vehicle is applied
on web
– Avoids holes in highly
stresses flanges
 Chassis types‐ Ladder frames
Clockwise side frame bending
• Torsion in cross member is
reacted by bending of
side frames
• Bending in cross frames are
reacted by torsion of side
frames
• All members are loaded in
torsion
• Open sections are replaced
Anti‐clockwise cross frame torsion
by closed sections to
improve torsional stiffness
– Strength of joints becomes critical
– Max bending occurs at joints
– Attachment of brackets becomes
more complex
 Chassis types‐ cruciform frames
• Can carry torsional loads , no
elements of the frame is
subjected to torsional moment.
• Made of two straight beams
• Have only bending loads
• Has good torsional stiffness when
joint in center is satisfactorily
designed
• Max bending moment occurs in
joint.
• Combining ladder and cruciform
frame provides good bending and
good torsional stiffness
• Cross beams at front and back at
suspension points are used to
carry lateral loads
 Chassis types‐ Torque tube back bone
frame Back bone
• Main back bone is a closed
box section
• Splayed beams at front and
rear extent to suspension
mounting points
• Transverse beams resist
Transverse
lateral loads beam
• Back bone frame: bending
and torsion
• Splayed beams: bending
• Transverse beams: tension
or compression

Splayed beams
 Chassis types‐ Space frames
• In all frames till now length in one
dimension is very less compared
to the other two dimensions
• Increasing depth increases
bending strength
• Used in race cars
• All planes are fully
triangulated
• Beam elements carry either
tension or compressive loads.
• Ring frames depends on bending
of elements
– Windscreen, back light
– Engine compartment, doors
– Lower shear stiffness
• In diagonal braced frame s
stiffness provided by diagonal
element
 Chassis types‐ Integral structures
• Modern cars are mass produced
• Sheet steel pressings and spot welds
used to form an integral structure
• Components have structural and
other functions
• Side frames + depth + roof gives good
bending and torsional stiffness
• Geometrically very complicated
• Stress distribution by FEM only
• Stress distribution is function of
applied loads and relative stiffness
between components
• Advantages:
– Stiffer in bending and
torsion
– Lower weight
– Less cost
– Quiet operation
Structural analysis by Simple Structural
Surfaces (SSS) method
• Many methods to determine
loads and stresses
• Elementary method is beam
method, FEM is advanced
method and SSS is intermediate
• Developed by Pawlowski in
1964
• Determines loads in main
structural elements
• Elements are assumed to be rigid
in its plane
• Can carry loads in its plane
– Tension, compression, shear and
bending
• Loads normal to plane and
bending out of plane is invalid
and not allowed
SSS method – Analysis of simple van
(torsion case)
 SSS method – Analysis of simple van
(torsion case)
• Ten structural
components are
considered
• If geometry is known and
axle loads are known,
edge loads (Q s) can be
determined.
• For a fully laden van front
axle load is lighter.
• By moment balance R’r
can be determined.
R'r Rf
*tr  *tf
2
2
 SSS method – Analysis of simple van
(torsion case)
• The equilibrium of SSS‐2 and SSS‐
3 are obtained by taking
moments as Rf and R’r are known.

• SSS‐2 (front cross beam)

Rf
P 2 w  2 *tf  0
• SS‐3 (Rear cross beam)

R'r
P3w  2 *tr  0
• P2 and P3 will be equal in
magnitude as they act at the
width of the vehicle and the
torque at the front and rear must
be equal.
 SSS method – Analysis of simple van
(torsion case)
• Considering SSS‐6
• Q1 to Q5 will occur
around periphery
• Applies opposite
moment to P2 and P3
• Taking moment at A
P3(l1  l 2  l3)  Q3(l1  l 2  l 3  l 4)  Q4(h1  h2)  Q2h2  P2l1
0

• Consider SSS‐4 (front panel)

Q6h2  Q1w  0
• Consider SSS‐5 (rear door frame)
Q 6h 1  Q 3w  0
 SSS method – Analysis of simple van
(torsion case)
• Consider SSS‐8 (floor panel)
Q6(l1  l 2  l 3  l 4)  Q 2 w  0

• Consider SSS‐9 (windscreen frame)

Q6(h1  h2)
 Q5w  0
sin
• Consider SSS‐10
(Roof)
Q6l5  Q4w  0
• Six unknowns Q1
to Q6
• Substitute Q2, Q3 and Q4
in the eqn of SSS‐6
• Q6 can be obtained and
 Simple Structural Surfaces
representing a saloon car in
bending
Material from J.H. Smith, 2002
 Passenger car
• More complex than box type van
• Detailed model vary according to mechanical
components
– Front suspensions loads applied to front wing as
for strut suspension
– Rear suspension (trailing arm or twist beam) loads
to inner longitudinal member under the boot
floor
– SSSs varies with body types
 Vehicle structures represented by SSS

Bus or box type vehicle Van Passenger car

SSS and Not SSS

Structures that are structural surfaces

Image from J.C.Brown,2002

Structures that are NOT simple
structural surfaces

Image from J.C.Brown,2002

 Half saloon model
• Limited to 5 Loads
– F1z= (radiator, bumper, battery)/2
– F2z= (engine)/2
– F3z= one front passenger and seat
– F4z = one rear passenger, seat, and half fuel tank
– F5z = (luggage)/2
• 1 UDL (body weight)
 Process
• Calculate reactions at front and rear axles
( taking moments and vertical force equilibrium)
– Rzf/2
– Rrz/2
• Calculate forces in each of the SSS
• 11 equations with 11 unknowns ( K1, .. K10,
M) can be evaluated from SSS1 to SSS8
• Equilibrium of right frame to be verified with
forces and moments
Half Saloon car model ‐ Bending
 Figure

• Transverse SSS SSS 1

representing the strut
tower
• Resolving Forces
K1 + K2 – Rfz / 2 = 0
• Moments
K1 =
Rfz*w1/(2*(w1+w2)
)
 Figure

Upper front longitudinaSl

•

SS2
• Resolving Forces
K1 –K3 – u (l1 +l3) = 0
• Moments
K1l3 – u*((l1+l3)2/2)‐M =0
Figure

SSS3
• Lower front longitudinal
• Resolving Forces
F1z + F2z + K5‐ K2‐ K4 = 0
Figure

SSS4
• engine fire wall
• Resolving Forces and by
symmetry
K5 ‐ K6 = 0
 Figure

SSS 5

• Floor Cross beam (Front)

• Resolving forces and by symmet ry
K7‐K4‐F3z =0
Figure

SSS 6

• Longitudinal under boot

• Resolving forces K9+ K8‐ Rrz /2 + F5z
=0
• Moments : K9 = (Rrz*l6/2 – F5l10) /
(l5+l6)
 Figure

SSS 7

• Floor cross beam (rear)

• Resolving forces and by symmet ry
K9‐K11‐F4z =0
Figure

SSS 8
• Rear Panel
• Resolving forces and by
symmetry
K10‐K8 = 0
Figure

SSS 9

• Right‐hand side‐frame
• Resolving forces
K6 – K7 + K11 + K10 – u*(L + l6 – l3) = 0
• Moments about A
K10*(L + l6 – l3)+K11*(L – l3 – l5)–K7*(l4 – l3)–u*(L + l6 – l3)2/2 = 0
 Conclusion
• SSSs 1 to 9 are subject to loads
• The rear boot top frame, rear screen, roof,
windscreen, floor panel and boot floor have
no loads applied to them
• The side‐frame carries the major loads and is
the main structural member for
determining the bending stiffness and
strength of the car.
 SSS representation of a saloon car in
torsion
• Front axle is assumed to
be lighter than rear.
• Maximum torque that
canRfzbe applied
R ' rz
is:
*tf  *tr
2 2
• Rfz and R’rz are
reaction
loads at suspension
mounting points
• R’rz can be
obtained.
• SSS‐1 (Strut tower)

– The car's alignment and structural

rigidity depends on the strut tower.

• Resolving forces:
– Forces are not balanced .

Rfz
P1P2 2 0
• Moment balance
– Taking moment about the medial
edge
R w
P1 fz *
 22 (w2
w1)
• P1 and P2 can be determined from
the above equations.
• As this is a half model , loads on the
left strut tower (SSS‐1’) will be
equal but opposite in direction
• SSS‐2 (Upper front longitudinal)
– Load P1 from strut tower is transmitted.

• Force balance
P3  P1  0
• Moment balance
– P1 is equal to P3
– creates a moment in
clockwise
direction ’
– moment M
balances
– Moment taken
wrt rear edge
M'P1l3 0
• SSS‐2’ have equal but opposite
loads.
• P3 and M’ can be found.
• SSS‐3 (Lower front longitudinal)
– P2 from strut tower is transmitted

• Force balance:
P2 P4 P5 0
• Moment balance:
– Taken wrt rear edge

p2l4
P5 
(l4 l5)
• SSS‐3’ have equal and
opposite loads.
• P4 and P5 can
be found.
• SSS‐5 (Floor cross
beam)
• Mo 4ment
P (tf
2w2)P7w0
balance:
• SSS‐6 (Longitudinal under boot floor)
• Force balance:

P 9  P 8  R ' rz  0
• Moment
balance2:
R ' rz * l 6
P 9 ’ will have equal and
• SSS‐6
opposite  l 5)
• P , P*8 di
l27oa and
(nlgP69 can be found.
• SSS‐4 (Engine firewall)
• Moment balance:

P5(tf
• SSS‐7 (rear floor cross beam )
2w2)Q 1h1Q2w0
• Moment balance:

• SSS‐8 (rear floor cross beam )

P9tr Q 1h2
Q3w0
• Moment balance:

• SSS‐10 (rear floor cross beam )

P• 8 tMr omQen1t( bha3lanche:2 ) 
Q 4w  0

Q 1( h  h
 Q 6w  0
1 ) co s 
• SSS‐12 (Roof panel)
• Moment balance:

Q1l8
• SSS‐13 (Back‐light frame)
Q7w0
• Moment balance:

• QS1S( Sh‐ (3Trunk top

 Q 8w
frame)  0
14com
• M h o esnt balance:
)

• SSS‐15 (rear floor cross beam )

• Mom e n t b al a nc e :
Q 1 l7  Q 9 w  0

Q 1( l 5  l 6)  Q 10 w  0
 • SSS‐16 (Main floor)
• Moment balance:

L  l 5–SSS‐16
Q•1 (SSS‐11 l 3)  Q w  0
are1 1in
complimentary shear
• SSS‐9 (side frame)
• Moment about A:

Q4(Ll6 l3)Q3(Ll5 l3)P7(l4

l 3)
M'Q 6(l9cos)Q7(h
• 11 equations and 11 unknowns
h
Q18)co
Q1..(L
Q11l6. l
Can7 l
be
c 9(h solved.
33)Q 8(h
sin3h
10(h
1)
Q h1)Q 1h2)Q11(h

1) 0
• Examination of figure reveals:
– Shear force is applied to all panels
– Including windscreen frame,
backlight frame, trunk frame, rear
panel, floor panel and trunk floor
panel
– Should have good shear stiffness
– Floor panel requires swaging to
prevent buckling.
– Windscreen frame and backlight
frame must be constructed with stiff
corner joints
– This ensures shear is transferred to
roof.
– In other words these frames must not
shear.
– A single poor frame stiffness will result
in poor vehicle torsional stiffness
• Examination of figure reveals:
– Windscreen frame and backlight
frame are stiffened by glass, which
acts as shear panel
– Glasses are bonded to frames
– This ensures glass is retained in frontal
impacts
– Glass is subjected to shear stress
– If surrounding frames are less stiff
glass may crack
– Rear panel and trunk top frame are
subjected to shear.
– These 2 components are not very
good SSSs due to large discontinuity
caused by trunk lid.
– Overcome by high sill or lift over
– This makes poor access for loading
luggage
• Examination of figure reveals:
– Side rear panels which houses rear
lights are made wide like the sides
of the trunk top frame.
– A better structure will incorporate a
panel or cross brace in the plane of
rear sear back.
– Most of the modern car do not have
this as customers prefer folding seats.
 Computational methods
• Structural analysis is now fundamental in
vehicle design process
• Finite element method (FEM) is a
promising tool in structural analysis
• Vehicle structures are divided into small
elements
• Finite elements deforms while in SSS
structures are assumed to be rigid
• Static and/or dynamic equilibrium
equations along with material constitutive
equations are solved using linear algebra
• Complexity of FEM increased as detail of
vehicle model increases
• Beam elements represent sills, window
pillars, engine rails and floor cross beams
• Floor, roof, bulkheads can be modeled by
equivalent beams that have stiffness
equivalent to shear panels
 Computational methods
• Recent models use plate
and shell elements to
accurately represent sheet
metal components
• Number of loads and
number of elements results
in a very large data set.
• Long model preparation
time and long
computer solving
time
• Initial loading to FEM can be
derived using rigid body
methods like SSS.