9
Using DDL Statements
to Create and Manage Tables
Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to do
the following:
• Categorize the main database objects
• Review the table structure
• List the data types that are available for columns
• Create a simple table
• Understand how constraints are created at the
time of table creation
• Describe how schema objects work
9-2 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Database Objects
Object Description
Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some
queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects
9-3 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Naming Rules
Table names and column names:
• Must begin with a letter
• Must be 1–30 characters long
• Must contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and #
• Must not duplicate the name of another object
owned by the same user
• Must not be an Oracle server reserved word
9-4 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
CREATE TABLE Statement
• You must have:
– CREATE TABLE privilege
– A storage area
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr][, ...]);
• You specify:
– Table name
– Column name, column data type, and column size
9-5 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Referencing Another User’s Tables
• Tables belonging to other users are not in the
user’s schema.
• You should use the owner’s name as a prefix to
those tables.
USERA USERB
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM userB.employees; FROM userA.employees;
9-6 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
DEFAULT Option
• Specify a default value for a column during an
insert.
... hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE, ...
• Literal values, expressions, or SQL functions are
legal values.
• Another column’s name or a pseudocolumn are
illegal values.
• The default data type must match the column data
type.
CREATE TABLE hire_dates
(id NUMBER(8),
hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
Table created.
9-7 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Creating Tables
• Create the table.
CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13),
create_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
Table created.
• Confirm table creation.
DESCRIBE dept
9-8 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Data Types
Data Type Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB)
CLOB Character data (up to 4 GB)
RAW and LONG Raw binary data
RAW
BLOB Binary data (up to 4 GB)
BFILE Binary data stored in an external file (up to 4 GB)
ROWID A base-64 number system representing the unique
address of a row in its table
9-9 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Datetime Data Types
You can use several datetime data types:
Data Type Description
TIMESTAMP Date with fractional seconds
2024-04-30 15:30:00 +03:00
INTERVAL YEAR TO Stored as an interval of years
MONTH and months
INTERVAL '3-6' YEAR TO MONTH represents 3
years and 6 months.
INTERVAL DAY TO Stored as an interval of days, hours,
SECOND minutes, and seconds
'5 12:30:15.123' DAY TO SECOND represents 5
days, 12 hours, 30 minutes, 15 seconds, and 123
milliseconds.
9-11 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Datetime Data Types
• The TIMESTAMP data type is an extension of the
DATE data type.
• It stores the year, month, and day of the DATE data
type plus hour, minute, and second values as well
as the fractional second value.
• You can optionally specify the time zone.
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
WITH TIME ZONE
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE
9-12 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Datetime Data Types
CREATE TABLE example_interval_day_to_second (
id NUMBER,
duration INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND,
description VARCHAR2(100)
);
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Datetime Data Types
• The INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH data type stores a
period of time using the YEAR and MONTH datetime
fields:
INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH
• The INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND data type stores a
period of time in terms of days, hours, minutes,
and seconds:
INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)]
TO SECOND [(fractional_seconds_precision)]
9-15 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Including Constraints
• Constraints enforce rules at the table level.
• Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there
are dependencies.
• The following constraint types are valid:
– NOT NULL
– UNIQUE
– PRIMARY KEY
– FOREIGN KEY
– CHECK
9-18 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Constraint Guidelines
• You can name a constraint, or the Oracle server
generates a name by using the SYS_Cn format.
• Create a constraint at either of the following times:
– At the same time as the table is created
– After the table has been created
• Define a constraint at the column or table level.
• View a constraint in the data dictionary.
9-19 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Defining Constraints
• Syntax:
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[column_constraint],
...
[table_constraint][,...]);
• Column-level constraint:
column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,
• Table-level constraint:
column,...
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type
(column, ...),
9-20 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Defining Constraints
• Column-level constraint:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, 1
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
...);
• Table-level constraint:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6),
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
... 2
job_id VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk
PRIMARY KEY (EMPLOYEE_ID));
9-21 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
NOT NULL Constraint
Ensures that null values are not permitted for the
column:
NOT NULL constraint NOT NULL Absence of NOT NULL
(No row can contain constraint constraint
a null value for (Any row can contain a
this column.) null value for this
column.)
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UNIQUE Constraint
UNIQUE constraint
EMPLOYEES
…
INSERT INTO
Allowed
Not allowed:
already exists
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UNIQUE Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25),
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
...
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));
9-24 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
PRIMARY KEY Constraint
DEPARTMENTS
PRIMARY KEY
…
Not allowed INSERT INTO
(null value)
Not allowed
(50 already exists)
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FOREIGN KEY Constraint
DEPARTMENTS
PRIMARY
KEY
…
EMPLOYEES
FOREIGN
KEY
… Not allowed
INSERT INTO (9 does not
exist)
Allowed
9-26 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
FOREIGN KEY Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25),
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
...
department_id NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));
9-27 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
FOREIGN KEY Constraint:
Keywords
• FOREIGN KEY: Defines the column in the child
table at the table-constraint level
• REFERENCES: Identifies the table and column
in the parent table
• ON DELETE CASCADE: Deletes the dependent
rows in the child table when a row in the
parent table is deleted
• ON DELETE SET NULL: Converts dependent
foreign key values to null
9-28 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
CHECK Constraint
• Defines a condition that each row must satisfy
• The following expressions are not allowed:
– References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and
ROWNUM pseudocolumns
– Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV
functions
– Queries that refer to other values in other rows
..., salary NUMBER(2)
CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
CHECK (salary > 0),...
9-29 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
CREATE TABLE: Example
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_employee_id PRIMARY KEY
, first_name VARCHAR2(20)
, last_name VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL
, email VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT emp_email_nn NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE
, phone_number VARCHAR2(20)
, hire_date DATE
CONSTRAINT emp_hire_date_nn NOT NULL
, job_id VARCHAR2(10)
CONSTRAINT emp_job_nn NOT NULL
, salary NUMBER(8,2)
CONSTRAINT emp_salary_ck CHECK (salary>0)
, commission_pct NUMBER(2,2)
, manager_id NUMBER(6)
, department_id NUMBER(4)
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk REFERENCES
departments (department_id));
9-30 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Violating Constraints
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 55
WHERE department_id = 110;
UPDATE employees
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK)
violated - parent key not found
Department 55 does not exist.
9-31 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Violating Constraints
You cannot delete a row that contains a primary key that is used as a
foreign key in another table.
DELETE FROM departments
WHERE department_id = 60;
DELETE FROM departments
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (HR.EMP_DEPT_FK)
violated - child record found
9-32 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Creating a Table
by Using a Subquery
• Create a table and insert rows by combining the
CREATE TABLE statement and the AS subquery
option.
CREATE TABLE table
[(column, column...)]
AS subquery;
• Match the number of specified columns to the
number of subquery columns.
• Define columns with column names and
default values.
9-33 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Creating a Table
by Using a Subquery
CREATE TABLE dept80
AS
SELECT employee_id, last_name,
salary*12 ANNSAL,
hire_date
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 80;
Table created.
DESCRIBE dept80
9-34 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
ALTER TABLE Statement
Use the ALTER TABLE statement to:
• Add a new column
ALTER TABLE employees
ADD new_column_name data_type;
• Modify an existing column
ALTER TABLE employees
MODIFY existing_column_name new_data_type;
• Define a default value for the new column
ALTER TABLE employees
MODIFY new_column_name DEFAULT default_value;
• Drop a column
ALTER TABLE employees
DROP COLUMN column_name;
9-35 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Dropping a Table
• All data and structure in the table are deleted.
• Any pending transactions are committed.
• All indexes are dropped.
• All constraints are dropped.
• You cannot roll back the DROP TABLE statement.
DROP TABLE dept80;
Table dropped.
9-36 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the
CREATE TABLE statement to create a table and include
constraints.
• Categorize the main database objects
• Review the table structure
• List the data types that are available for columns
• Create a simple table
• Understand how constraints are created at the
time of table creation
• Describe how schema objects work
9-37 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Practice 9: Overview
This practice covers the following topics:
• Creating new tables
• Creating a new table by using the CREATE TABLE
AS syntax
• Verifying that tables exist
• Dropping tables
9-38 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Practice 9: Overview
Create the Employees2 and Departments2 tables using
DDL statements.
Populate the tables with sample data.
Write SQL queries to perform the following tasks:
• Select employees' names and their salaries, including
arithmetic expressions to calculate bonuses based on salary.
• Retrieve employees who were hired after a specific date.
• Find employees whose job title contains a specific keyword using the
LIKE condition.
• Calculate the average salary for employees in each department using
Group functions.
• List employees and their corresponding department names using Joins.
• Perform a subquery to find employees who earn more than the average
salary.
• Combine the results of two queries using set operators.
9-39 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Practice 9: Overview
Experiment with DML statements to:
• Insert new rows into the Employees and Departments
tables.
• Update existing employee records.
• Delete records from the Employees table based on
specific criteria.
• Practice controlling transactions using COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINTs.
Deadline: Sunday, 6:00 PM.
9-40 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
