NUCLEAR LOGGING

GAMMA RAY, DENSITY AND NEUTRON

Borja de Faria-Pereira Pérez de Rada & Andrea García Bruno

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 THE GAMMA RAY LOG

© UNE. October 2014

 Gamma ray log
Tool fundamentals

• The gamma ray (GR) log is a

measurement of the natural
radioactivity of the formations.

• Shallow depth of investigation.

• Run in cased and open holes, all mud

types.

• Calibrated in API units. 200 API units

simulate twice the radioactivity of a
common shale. For Schlumberger’s
NGT tool:

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 Gamma ray log
Physics of the measurement

• Radioactive elements decay to stable isotopes by

emitting α, β or γ radiations.

• Gamma (γ) radiation has the highest level of

penetration.

• Gamma rays interact with matter in 3 different ways:

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 Gamma ray log
The simple GR tool

The avalanche of electrons

Flash hits photocathode and emits a produce a measurable
Gamma ray enters NaI crystal and number of electrons by photo-electric electric pulse that is
produces flash of light effect proportional to the energy of
the original GR

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 Gamma ray log
The NGS tool

• The spectral gamma ray tool, or the Natural

Gamma Ray Spectrometry log (NGS),
measures the natural radioactivity of the
formations too.

• When the GR passes through the NaI crystal

causes a flash. Its intensity depends on the
energy of the incident GR.

• Identification of GR in pre-defined energy

windows.

• The relative contributions of the three elements

are measured by the tool and can be related to
the abundance of each element by comparison
with known spectra.

• Output: SGR, CGR (U-free) and K (%), U

(ppm) and Th (ppm) concentrations.

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 Gamma ray log
Corrections

- Hole conditions causing radiation attenuation:

‒ Hole fluid
Volume – hole or casing size
Position – centered or eccentered
Density – air, water, oil
Composition – NaCl, KCl, Bentonite, Barite have differing levels of
radioactivity
‒ Tubing, casing etc.
Thickness
Density
Nature – aluminum, steel etc.
‒ Cement
Thickness
Density
Type
Additives

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 Gamma ray log
Corrections

Example – A GR reads 36 API in a 12

inch diameter hole (Dh) filled with mud of
density (Wmud) equal to 12 lb/g. The tool
diameter (Dsonde) is 3.325 inches and
was centered in the hole. What is the true
GR response?

1.Calculate t from:-

2.t = 15.8

3.Read t against tool and hole position

and determine Correction Factor = 1.6

4.Correct GR = 1.6 * 36 API = 58 API

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 Gamma ray log
Applications
• General applications of GR log:

• Definition of shale beds

• Quantitative estimation of clay volume

• Lithology indicator

• Well to well correlations

• Estimation of radioactivity of sandstones and

other arenaceous rocks

• Depth-control

• Specific applications of NGS log:

• Identify minerals or clay type.

• Quantitative estimation of clay volume by using Th Depth

(ft)
GR Shale
(API)
GR Clean
(API)
GR
Reading
Shale
Volume
(API) (v/v)
• Identification of fractures and faults (high U 70 125 25 90 0.65
concentration)
100 125 25 25 0.00
• Identification of source rocks (high U)
160 125 25 45 0.20

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 Gamma ray log
Tool types by service company

• Schlumberger
• HGNS: Highly Integrated Gamma Neutron Sonde
• HTGC: Hostile Environment Telemetry and Gamma Ray Cartridge (high Tº)
• SGT-N: Scintillation Gamma Ray Tool
• STGC-A: SlimXtreme Telemetry and Gamma Ray Cartridge
• CGRS: Combinable Gamma Ray Sonde
• Halliburton
• Simple GR tool: Quad DITS Telemtry Unit Gamma
• CSNG-I: Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma
• Baker and Hughes
• Simple GR tool
• DSL: Digital Spectralog Service

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 THE DENSITY LOG

© UNE. October 2014

 Density log
Tool fundamentals

• The density log is an active nuclear

measurement that records the formation’s
bulk density.

• Source - 137 Cesium emits gamma rays at

0.66 MeV.

• Gamma rays interact with electrons in the

formation through Compton Scattering and
Photo-Electric Effect.

• Number and energy levels of gamma rays

detected at short and long spacing
detectors.

• Density scale is linear and is measured in

g/cm3.

• First tools used just one detector and the

density was measured in counts per second.
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 Density log
Tool fundamentals

Formation Density Compensated tool

Litho-Density Tool:

Detects low-energy GR,

sensitive to photoelectric
absorption, and compton-
scattered GR

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 Density log
Tool fundamentals

The two-detectors system – compensating the borehole effects

Collimator: a device that filters a stream of

rays so that only those traveling parallel to a
Long spacing specified direction are allowed through,
detector ensuring that the GR are coming only from
the mudcake or the formation.

Short spacing
detector
LDT

In the LDT tool, only the far detector has a

Be window, which is transparent to the low
energy gamma rays (PEF)
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 Density log
Tool fundamentals
Be is transparent
to low E GR, the
ones that are
susceptible to PE

LDT

• The far detector measures both the high E gamma rays (sensitive to Compton Scattering) and low E
gamma rays (sensitive to photoelectric effect).

• The attenuation, in counts, N, of low energy gamma rays by photoelectric absorption alone can be
written as:

Pe depends on the cross section (τ)

and the atomic number (Z)

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 Density log
Physics of the measurement

• High E-GR are attenuated by the formation

mainly by Compton Scattering.

• By relating high E-GR counting rates, the

Compton-cross section by electron and the
atomic number we obtain the electron density
index, ρe, which can be related to the bulk
density as:

• Low E-GR are attenuated by Photoelectric effect.

• By relating the low E-GR counting rates, the

photoelectric-cross section by electron and the atomic
number we obtain the photoelectric index (Pe).

• For a molecule made of i atoms is expressed as:

• But Pe does not follow a linear volumetric mixing law,

so to represent a density-weighted photoelectric
factor, U:

• Pe is a very useful lithology detector because is less

sensitive to fluids

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 Density log
Corrections

• Borehole conditions:
• Hole size
• Hole wall rugosity
• Drilling fluids: air-based muds, barite…
• Mud cake (spine and ribs plot only to a certain
thickness)
• Invasion: The shallow depth of investigation implies that in
porous and permeable formations, it only measures the
invaded zone.
• Deviation effects
• Presence of gas or light HC (gas crossover with NPHI)
• Lithology (apparent density not always equal to bulk
density, chart Dens-2)
• Bed thickness.
• Shales and overpressure: shales have variable density,
generally increasing with compaction, except for
overpressured shales.
• Temperature: affects fluid density (gas)
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 Density log
Corrections

Borehole washout & corresponding large density correction

A
B

Mud cake intervals

C
correspond to cleanest
D
and most porous
interval (CALI<BS)

E
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 Density log
Applications

• Porosity evaluation.

• Lithology identification by using photoelectric

factor, density-sonic, density-neutron, MID and
M-N crossplots).

• Gas indication (gas crossover: NPHI<RHOB)

• Elaboration of synthetic seismograms

(accoustic impedance calculation)

• Estimation of mechanical properties

• Detection of overpressured shales: change of

density trend with depth

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 Density log
Tool types by service company

• Schlumberger
• FDC: Formation Density Compensated tool
• TLD: Three Detector Lithology Density (inside the High-Resolution Mechanical
Sonde, HRMS)
• LDS or LDT: Litho-Density Sonde (2 detectors)
• HLDS: Hostile Environment Lithology Density Sonde (high T and P)
• QLDT: SlimXtreme Litho-Density Tool
• PEX: Platform Express (an assembly with HNGS, CNL and TLD)
• Halliburton
• SDLT: Spectral Density Logging Tool
• HSDL: Hostile Spectral Density Log (high T and P)
• Baker and Hughes
• ZDL: Compensated Z-Densilog
• CDL: Compensated Density Log

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 THE NEUTRON LOG

© UNE. October 2014

 Neutron log
Tool fundamentals

• The neutron log is an active nuclear

measurement that measures the formations
porosity.

• A chemical source (typically

Americium241/Beryllium, AmBe) that emits
high E neutrons.

• The neutrons are primarily slowed by H

atoms, so detector counting rates are
inversely proportional to the hydrogen
index (HI) of the formation

• Shallow depth of investigation

• Measurement in neutron porosity units

(p.u.), usually calibrated for limestone

• NPHI = 0 p.u. ↔ RHOB = matrix density

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 Neutron log
Physics of the measurement

• Greatest loss of energy occurs when the

neutron strikes a hydrogen nucleus (one
neutron, so very similar mass)

• Probability of collision depends on the H

concentration (i.e. HI) and the elastic cross
section of the atom.

• Depending on their energy, there are

different types of neutrons.

Source
emmits…
Fast Epithermal Thermal
High-E GR
neutrons neutrons neutrons

Interactions with other Interactions mainly Neutron is captured by a

atoms (O, N, C..) with H atoms… nucleus. It transforms into
an unstable atom which
emits…
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 Neutron log
Tool fundamentals

• Epithermal neutron tools

• Sidewall Neutron Porosity (SNP): pad device
with a single detector measuring epithermal tools

• Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS): with a

particle accelerator that generates high E
neutrons. 4 epithermal detectors and one thermal
detector. Counting rates transformed to porosity:
• By using an alpha-factored processing method:
time independent rates, more precision.

• By measuring the neutron slowing-down time

(SDT): time distribution of epithermal count rates
with cyclic intervals with 100 – 1 microsecond
bins. The inverse of the slowing-down time varies
linearly with porosity.

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 Neutron log
Tool fundamentals

• Thermal neutron tools

• The higher the HI, the higher the thermal
neutrons population near the neutron source.

• More sensitive to lithology because of strong

neutron absorbers: Li, Bo, Cl…

• Compensated Neutron Log (CNT): dual-

spacing detector to reduce borehole effects.
CNT-A (thermal neutrons) and CNT-G (thermal
and epithermal neutrons).

• Neutron-gamma tools
• Gamma Ray-Neutron Tool (GNT): single
detector sensitive to both GR and thermal
neutrons. No longer in use.

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 Neutron log
Corrections
• Borehole size

• Rocks composition

• Besides H, other elements contribute to the slowing-

down of the neutrons.

• H present in crystallization water (gypsum), bound

water (clays)...

• NPHI usually calibrated in limestone matrix, if the

rock has other minerals, porosity needs to be
corrected.

• Fluid type and salinity

• Cl is a strong thermal absorber

• Dissolved NaCl reduces HI

• Corrections for salinity of the mud, filtrate, and

formation water.

• Presence of light hydrocarbons: gas has a lower H

concentration, so the NPHI will be lower than the real one Example – A TNPH reads 20% (limestone units) in a
(gas crossover with density). freshwater sandstone. What is the correct porosity ?
• Temperature and Pressure of fluids: with increasing T, HI
TNPH (sandstone) = 25 %
decreases; with increasing P, HI increases.
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 Neutron log
Corrections – The scale problem

4 p.u.

NPHI Sst
0.6 0.3 -0.02 0

RHOB
1.71 2.21 2.71

2.65
Quicklook method for CNL log:
Sst Lst
0.45 0.15 -0.03 0 -0.15 • Sst porosity units to Lst porosity units:
PHIN_LS = PHIN_SS – 0.04

1.95 2.45 2.95

• Lst porosity units to Sst porosity units:
PHIN_SST = PHIN_LST + 0.04
© 2.65 2.7
 Neutron log
Corrections

Example – An uncorrected neutron tool reads

34 % (limestone units) under the following
conditions. What is the corrected neutron
reading ?

Condition Type Value Correction

Borehole Size 12 inches -2
Mudcake 0.25 inches 0
Thickness
Borehole Salinity 100,000 ppm 1
Mud Weight 11 lbs/g 2
Borehole 150 deg. F. 4
Temperature

Wellbore 5,000 psi -1

Pressure

Formation 100,000 ppm -3

Salinity

Net Correction -1

© Corrected Neutron = 33%

 Neutron log
Applications

• Porosity estimation

• Gas and light hydrocarbon detection

• Hydrocarbon density determination (in

conjunction with other logs)

• Identification of lithology (in conjunction with

other logs)

• Shale volume determination (in conjunction

with other logs)

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 Neutron log
Tool types by service company

• Schlumberger
• APS: Accelerator Porosity Sonde.
• CNT: Compensated Neutron Log.
• HGNS: Highly Integrated Gamma Ray Neutron Sonde
• SCNT: Slim Compensated Neutron
• QCNT-A: SlimXtreme Compensated Neutron Porosity Tool
• DNL: Dual Energy Neutron Log (2 thermal & 2 epithermal detectors).
• CHFP: Cased Hole Formation Porosity
• PEX: Platform Express (HGNS + CNL + TDL)

• Halliburton
• DSEN: Dual Spaced Epithermal Neutron
• DSNII: Dual Spaced Neutron II
• HDSN: Hostile Dual-Spaced Neutron tool
• Baker and Hughes
• SWN: Side-Wall Neutron tool
• CN: Compensated Neutron log service
• NEU: Neutron log
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