Chapter 1

Introduction to Sociology
 Meaning of sociology
• Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human
social behavior, patterns of social relationship, social
interaction, and aspect of culture associated with everyday
life.
• It is the study of the development , structure, and
functioning of human society.
• Sociologist investigate the structure of groups, organization
and societies and how people interact within these contexts.
• Acc to Max Weber: “sociology” is the science which
attempts the interpretive understanding of social science.”
 Nature of Sociology
• Sociology is an independent science: It is not treated and
studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy or
political ,philosophy or history.

• Sociology is the social science and not a physical science: It

concentrates its attention on man, his social behavior, social
activities and social life.

• Sociology is the pure science and not an applied science: The

main aim of pure science is the acquisition of knowledge and
it don’t bother whether the acquired knowledge is useful or
can be put to use.
• Sociology is an abstract science not a
concrete science: It doesn’t confine itself to
the study of the particular society , marriage,
or religion or group. So it is abstract.

• Sociology is the general science not a special

science: The area of inquiry of sociology is
general not specialized. It is concerned with
human interaction and human life in general
 Subject matter of Sociology
• Sociological Analysis: Analysis of human society and culture with
sociological perspective.
• Study of Primary Units of Social Life: Such as social acts and social
relationships(love, care,) groups(ethnic, class) communities(rural,
urban).
• Study of basic social institution: Such as family, religion, education,
marriage etc
• Study of social process: Such as cooperation, competition, stratification,
deviance etc
• Formulation of concepts, propositions and theories
• Method of research: Like comparative, case study, functional methods
• Specialization in study: Sociology of religion, urban sociology, rural
sociology, industrial sociology
 Emergence of sociology
• The word “sociology” is derived from both Latin and Greek
origins.
• The Latin word “socious” means “companion” and the Greek
words “logy” means “the study of.
• August Comte(1789-1857) French philosopher who proposed a
separate and new science of society.
• He divided Sociology into two areas:
-Social static: Concerned with the various parts of society and
how these parts are held together. (now called social structure)
-Social dynamics: concerned with the analysis of change within
and among the various parts of society.(now called social
process)
• The rise of the study of society coincide with a
series of historical events that focused
through among keen observers of social life on
how individuals working in groups form,
maintain and change the social conditions
under which they live.
• The following factors are responsible for the
emergence of sociology as a distinct academic
discipline.
• Ancient philosopher’s contribution: The ancient Greek philosophers
like Plato, Aristotle(who were born before christ)and other described
the very nature of society and emphasized on the solution of the
problem of the society in order to make society a better place.
• Reformation Movement: Suffocated and distressed with the strict
religious norms and values of Roman Catholic Christianity, some
groups of people who later formed Protestant Christianity in the
form of movement of reforms.
• French Political Revolution : It was a period of time in France when
the people overthrew the monarchy and took control of the
government. It lasted for ten years and the result was development
of the belief that none of the social thought and political system
exists for long time and therefore created new thought.
• The Enlightenment period: This age is also called ‘Age of Reason’ which is the
period of 17th and 18 century. In this period many writers, philosophers, and
scientists began to argue that science and reason were more important than
religion and tradition and rejected and replaced many existing ideas and beliefs
relating to social life. The most popular thinkers with Enlighten were Charles
Montesquieu and Jean J. Rousseau. This remarkable intellectual development
and change also gave hints that a separate discipline is needed.
• Industrial Revolution(1760-1840): This revolution brought about great changes
in the social and economic life of the people. The factory system was
introduced. These changes led to a change in economy from ‘feudal’ to
‘capitalist’ system of production. Due to this revolution, society moved from
the old age of hand-made goods to the new age of machine made goods. As
economically benefited at the same time social problems such as poverty, grim
employment and low living condition of the poor and working class appeared.
 Relationship of Sociology with Economics
• Economics is the social science that analyzes the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
• Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.
• The relationship between sociology and economics is so close that
one is often treated as the branch of the other. But this doesn’t
mean that economics is a branch of sociology.
• Both are interested in studying the economic problems of the
people and also their means of earning and methods of spending.
Both provides data and help each other in finding out and solving
social-economic problems.
• Distribution and production of goods which is the field of study of
economists, must be studied after taking into consideration the
social needs.
• Economics are now analyzing the social factors
influencing economic growth, and are working with
sociologists in their study of the problems of economic
development in underdeveloped countries.
• Sociologists have contributed to the study of different
aspects, economic organization. A sociologist provides
knowledge of property system, division of labor,
occupations, industries, organization etc. To an
economist matters as labor relation, the standard of
living, employer-employee relation, social classes etc are
common to both economists and sociologists.
 Relationship of sociology and Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and

its functions , especially those affecting behavior in a
given context.
• The relationship between sociology and psychology
both study people, but while psychologists delve into
the mind of an individual or a small group to understand
human behavior and social and emotional reactions,
sociologist look beyond individuals to examine society
through specific associations such as family , race or
religion to understand current issues.
• Psychology depends on sociology for understanding
human nature properly. Sociology provides necessary
materials regarding the structure, organization and
culture of society in which human behavior is born. For
eg caste groups, class groups, etc influence human
behaviors.
• The similarities between both fields are concerned with
improving peoples lives and bettering society. Both
utilize communication, interpersonal, analytical,
research, listening, observational, and problem solving
skills.
 Sociology and Anthropology
• Anthropology is the study of the origin and
development of human societies and cultures.
• The specialization of anthropology is sociocultural(which
study patterns of behavior, including norms and values),
linguistic(studies how language influence social life),
biological(studies biological development of humans),
archeological(studies about past human life and
activities).
• Sociology studies the development, structure, social
interactions and behavior of human society at a specific
time.
• Sociology and anthropology involve the
systematic study of social life and culture in
order to understand the causes and
consequences of human action.
• They study the structure and process of
traditional culture and modern industrial
societies in both western and non western
cultures.
 Relevance of sociology in management and
Business Administration
• Sociology as an academic discipline helps to develop analytical
thinking and capabilities.
• Business leaders and human resource managers with a background in
sociology give an advantage when dealing with employees in the
workplace.
• With the knowledge of sociology business organization can avoid
alienating employees from work .
• Sociologists are aware of and understand that an event can influence
the larger population.
• Sociology is needed to built a public relation.
• Gives knowledge about social and cultural change.
• Establish friendly working environment
• Manage organizational deviance and conflict
Branches/Sub-division of sociology
• Theoretical sociology: This branch studies and analyses the
past sociological theories with the help of scientific methods.
Previous theories are verified on the basis of research.
• Applied sociology: This branch takes sociological theories and
methods to carry out research in order to find solutions to
problems within society.
• Historical sociology: It studied the past background of any
social events or social groups. How and when different social
groups or organizations originated?
• Sociology of knowledge: It studies about the production of
knowledge i.e. human thought and ideas and is always
influenced by society.
• Sociology of Education: This branch studies the
objectives of the school as a social institution, its
curriculum and extra- curricular activities and its
relationship to the community and other institution.
• Political sociology
• Sociology of religion
• Sociology of culture
• Sociology of family
• Sociology of law
 The core of sociology
• Society: A society is a group of people participating in
continuous social connection or a broad social group occupying
the same social or spatial territory, normally exposed to the
same political power and cultural standards that are dominant.
• It is called society because its members share some mutual
concern or interest, a common objective or common
characteristics.
• Acc to. R.T. Lapiere, “Society refers not to group of people but to
the complex pattern of norms of interaction that arise among
and between them.”
• For eg: a fair justice system is a fundamental part of a civilized
society, family unit
 Nature of society
• Grouping of people
• Common culture shared by all members
• Mutual interaction and mutual awareness
among people
• Both similarities and differences among the
members
• Society is dynamic
• Interdependence among the members
 Importance of society in a business
organization
• Grouping of people
• Common culture shared by all members
• Mutual interaction and mutual awareness
among people
• Both similarities and differences among the
members
• Society is dynamic
• Interdependence among the members
 Types of societies
1. On the Basis of Level of Economic and
Technological Development:

- First world(highly industrially advanced and

economically rich)
- Second world(industrially advanced but not as
much first category)
- Third world(least developed, or in the process
of developing)
2. On the basis of major source of economic
organization
a. Pre-industrial society
-Hunting and gathering society: Around 12000 years ago people
survived by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants. so this
is the oldest and simplest type of society.
-Pastoral society: It emerge after hunting and gathering societies,
where people livelihood is based on pasturing breeding of animals
such as cattle, camels, sheep and goats for food.
-Horticultural society: Their economy is based on cultivating
plants by the use of simple tools, such as digging sticks, hoes, axes
etc which helps in growing crops
-Agricultural society: It is still dominant in most parts of the
world, is based on large scale agriculture which largely depends on
ploughs using animal labor.
b. Industrial society(Modern or technological society): ‘The
Industrial Revolution’ which began in great Britain during 18 th
century, gave rise to emergence of Industrial Society. In this
society goods are produced by machines powered by fuels
instead of, by animal or human energy.
c.post-industrial society: the machines for producing and
transporting goods reduced the need of human labour so
much that the economy transformed again from an industrial
to post-industrial economy. This is the society based on
information, services, and high technology rather than on raw
materials and manufacturing. USA, Canada, Japan and
western European societies are highly industrialized societies.
 Culture
• “Culture” refers to the group’s shared beliefs,
practices and values for a living. It includes
everything produced by a society such as peoples
way of talking, dressing, cooking, eating,
marrying etc .
• Taylor defined, “culture is that complex whole
which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals,
law, custom and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by a human as a member of society”.
 Elements of culture
• Beliefs: are the convictions that people hold to be true.
• Norms: norms are rules or standards and expectations for behaving in the
society.
• Values: it involves judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or
undesirable.
• Rituals: rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next.
• Symbols: a symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else.
• Language: language is a system of words and symbols used to
communicate with other people.
• Artifacts: the artifacts or material objects, constitute a society’s material
culture.
• Idea and technology: application of ideas or knowledge into practical
purposes.
• Beliefs: are the convictions that people hold to be true.
• Norms: norms are rules or standards and expectations for behaving in the
society.
• Values: it involves judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or
undesirable.
• Rituals: rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next.
• Symbols: a symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else.
• Language: language is a system of words and symbols used to
communicate with other people.
• Artifacts: the artifacts or material objects, constitute a society’s material
culture.
• Idea and technology: application of ideas or knowledge into practical
purposes.
 Elements of culture
• Beliefs: are the convictions that people hold to be true.
• Norms: norms are rules or standards and expectations for behaving in the
society.
• Values: it involves judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or
undesirable.
• Rituals: rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next.
• Symbols: a symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else.
• Language: language is a system of words and symbols used to
communicate with other people.
• Artifacts: the artifacts or material objects, constitute a society’s material
culture.
• Idea and technology: application of ideas or knowledge into practical
purposes.
 Characteristics of culture
• Culture is Inherent in Society
• Culture satisfies human needs
• Culture is not Inborn; it is learnt
• Culture is shared
• Culture is dynamic and adaptive
• Culture is transmissive
• Culture varies from society to society
• Culture is symbolic
 Types of culture
• Material Culture: material culture is physical
things that are created by a man. For e.g.
manufactured objects such as tools,
technology, furniture, automobiles, arts , road
etc .
• Non-material culture: it is intangible things
produced by man. For e.g. social roles, ethics,
language
 Function of culture
• Culture is a treasury of knowledge with
instincts to adapt to environment.
• Culture defines situation
• Culture defines attitudes, values and goals
• Culture decides our careers
• Culture provides behavior pattern
• Culture molds personality of individuals
 Some concepts in cultural study
• Cultural Trait and culture complex: The smallest unit of culture is
called a “trait” which means that trait cannot be reduced to
further smallest part. A “cultural complex” is a cluster of related
traits.
• Cultural Lag: W.F. Ogburn introduced the concept of ‘Cultural Lag’
which refers to a gap that develops between fast-changing
technology and other slower-paced socio-cultural traits such as
belief, attitudes and norms.
• Sub-culture: Every society is composed of smaller sub-units all of
which when put together make a complex society. Such sub-units
or group whose ways of thinking, feeling and acting differ
somewhat from those of the larger society or the dominant
culture are known as “sub-cultures”.
• Counter-culture: Sub-culture which
deliberately opposes and consciously rejects
some of the basic beliefs, values and norms of
the dominant culture are called “counter-
culture”.
• Popular culture: The beliefs, practices,
activities and products that are widely shared
among a population in everyday life is called
“popular culture”.
 Social institution
• A social institution is an important human organization
in a culture group that helps a society to survive.
• Anthropologists have identified government, religion,
education, economy, and family as the five basic social
institutions that are necessary for a society to survive.
• To a sociologist families, sports teams, religions,
hospitals, and healthcare systems are all considered to
be institutions.
• Max Weber has defined social institution as “the social
relations in a whole network of social actions.”
Characteristics of social Institution
• Social is nature, universal, relatively
permanent
• Interdependent and inter-related
• Social institutions are standardized norms
• Means of satisfying social needs
• As control mechanism
• Abstract in nature
• Tend to be the site of social problems
 Social process (Socialization)
• “socialization” is an on-going and life-long
process whereby an individual learns and is
trained on the basic norms, values, beliefs,
skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as
appropriate to a specific social groups or
society.
• It is the process that turns a biological being
into a social being and develops a self or sense
of individual identity called ‘personality’.
 Features of socialization
• Inculcates basic discipline
• Helps to control human behavior
• Socialization takes place formally and
informally
• Socialization is a continuous process
• Socialization differs from society to society
 Importance of socialization
• It is through socialization that groups norms, values and
practices are learned by members that help to maintain
social system
• It plays an unique role in personality development of the
individual
• It imparts the basic goals, aspirations and values to
which the child is expected to direct his behavior for the
rest of life
• It helps to acquire appropriate social roles that the
individual is expected to play such as the role as
husband, wives, son, daughter, parents, children
 Types of socialization
• 1. Primary or childhood socialization: this is also
called basic or early socialization that refers to
socialization of the infant. Socialization at this stage
of life is a landmark; without it, we would cease to
become social being. In this the infant learn about
language, cognitive skills, internalizes basic norms
and values. A child who does not get appropriate
socialization at this stage will most likely be
deficient in his/her social, moral, intellectual and
personality development.
2. Secondary or Adulthood Socialization: it refers to
learning that occurs after people have undergone
primary socialization. It takes place outside the
home and mainly associated with teenagers and
adults. It is necessitated when individual take up
new roles, reorienting themselves according to
their changed social statuses and roles.
3. De-socialization: It is the process of the giving up
or loss of old norms, values, attitudes and behavior
patterns.
4. Re-socialization: it is the process of discarding
former behavior patterns and accepting new norms,
values, attitudes and behavior patterns as a part of
a transition in one’s life. For e.g. when a criminal is
rehabilitated, he has to change his role radically.
5. Anticipatory socialization: It refers to a process by
which men learn the culture of a group in advance
with the anticipation(hope) of joining that group or
future role or status. For e.g. a child anticipates
parenthood which he learns by observing.
• 6. Reverse Socialization: In most cases, the child
learns from his/her parents i.e. the influence
flows from parents to child. But this role may be
reversed i.e. the young people may influence and
change the attitudes and behaviors of their
elders. For e.g. the elders are more open to the
influence of a teenager in which they are seen to
having experiences such as adoption of
technology, a new car, dressing style.
 Agents of Socialization
1. Agents of primary socialization (informal
agents):
a. Family: - learns and acquire language
- internalizes norms, beliefs, and values
- learn about their role in family and
society
- learn gender roles
- begins to develop self image
b. Peer Group: Next to the family, peer groups are the
most powerful socializing agent in society. Usually of
same age who enjoy equal status from a group of
friends is called peer group. In childhood they are
formed by accidently but in adulthood tend to
choose peer group based on certain criteria.
-opportunities to engage in experience not
provided in family
- opportunities for self direction
2. Agents of secondary socialization:
a. Educational Institution: in modern society
where parents are often busy with their own
responsibility in such situation institutions such as
School, Universities have taken their role to
socialize their children.
- learn to accept and appreciate those who are
better than them or worse than them
- learn and practice social values such as sharing,
competing and co-operation
b. Marriage: - to be economically and socially
responsible as parents and members of the
family
- learn to compromise situations in life
c. Kin group: - to respect elders and love
juniors
- realize that they have a wider connections
and learn importance of unity
d. Neighbourhood: - by giving guidance on roles and
social responsibilities to the young people
- helping young people to learn how to interact with
others
e. Mass Media: such as television, radio, movies,
videos, tapes, magazines etc are also important
agents of socialization.
f. Religion: children are introduced to religion at a very
early age which provides opportunity to follow moral
codes that generates moral behavior
g. Political Institution : State makes laws for the
people and lays down the modes of conducts
(behavior) expected of them.
h. Work Place: - learn value of cooperation
- learn to respect authority and follow
workplace norms and social norms at large
 Social Inequality
• It refers to the condition when resources and
opportunities in a society are unevenly
distributed among people, creating an unequal
socio-economic status that results into some
people systematically experiencing advantages
over the others.
• Dimensions such as income (wealth) social class,
power, occupational prestige, caste/ethnicity,
schooling etc are all sources of inequality.
 Social stratification
• All societies place their members in positions that are higher
or lower, superior or inferior, in relation to each other based
on function, wealth, caste/ethnicity, gender, age etc.
• This system of arranging people in society into hierarchy
(ranks) whereby some falls in higher and others in lower
strata is called “social stratification”.
• Those in the top stratum enjoy more prestige, power,
privilege (get preferential treatment) than those below.
• Acc. To Gilbert “social stratification is a division of society
into permanent groups or categories linked with each other
by the relationship of superiority and subordination
 Social control and deviance
• Social control: it s a mechanism or strategy to bring
conformity to social norms and laws and therefore,
regulate people’s behavior and attitude in the
society. The main goal of social control is to
maintain social order.
• It is mainly done by socialization where people
learn to maintain social norms and values.
• Acc. To Innes “social control can be defined as an
organized action intended to change people’s
behavior”.
• “Deviance” is defined as the behavior or attitude that violates
social cultural norms. People who engage in deviant behavior
are referred to as deviants.
• Deviance is not always punishable, and it is not necessarily
bad. For e.g. deviance can be as minor as picking one’s nose in
public, traffic rules violation, or as major as committing a
murder.
• The concept of deviance is complex because norms vary
considerably across groups, time and place. For e.g. living
together relationship is acceptable in western culture but in
Nepalese society it is considered deviance.
• It can be both negative and positive
 Sociological Theories
• Functionalism: It emerged in 19th century, and it became
dominant during the 1940s and 1950s.
• The founding sociologist such as Auguste Comte, Emile
Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Persons contributed
to functionalism.
• Functionalism also known as “structural functionalism or
Equilibrium Theory” views society as an integrated whole
system of interconnected and inter-dependent parts( such
as groups, institutions such as family, religion, economy etc).
• Functionalism emphasizes that society is always stable and
in equilibrium state called “societal equilibrium
• It assumes that every parts has functions to play,
for instance, family provides an environment for
reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children.
Education offers a way to transfer society’s skills
knowledge, and culture to its youth.
• Organic analogy of functionalism
• Functionalist view towards social change
• Functionalist view towards Deviance and Crime
 Assumption of functionalism
• Society as a system of parts: society is a system like any other
systems. Such as solar system or organic system. Parts like
institutions, groups, status, role, associations etc. which are
interrelated and interdependent.
• Society is an integrated whole: the entire society for which we
can use the term ‘whole’ is greater than the summation of its
parts
• High emphasis on consensus: this perspective view society as
stable and equilibrium due to value consensus among the parts.
• Functional pre-requisites: for a society to survive and function,
it has to fulfill certain pre-requisites such as adaptation, a
shared goals, role differentiation, integration
 Criticism of functionalism
• Functionalism emphasizes on social stability
and order while neglecting conflict and
changes which is so vital in any society. So it
failed to explain rapid social change
• As a macro level theory, functionalism
neglects micro level social realities (social
processes) such as social change occurring in
the society due to cooperation, conflict,
westernization etc
 Conflict Theory
• It is also called “Marxism”.
• To overcome the weaknesses of functionalism theory, this theory
was contributed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Collins, Lewis Coser
etc.
• Marx argued economy (wealth) while along with economy, weber
argued ‘power’ and ‘status’ also as determinants of social class
• “conflict theory” views society as an arena of perpetual class
conflict due to competition between groups; the haves and have
nots (classes) over limited resources
• This theory focuses on social inequality between the classes in
terms of resources, status and power which lead to generation of
conflict aand change
• Marx told that every society existing today has
a history of class conflict (class struggle) and it
is the conflict that always drives human
society to change.
• The knowledge of conflict theory has been
used to explain varied social problems such as
social revolutions, the social discrimination,
domestic violence, gender issues etc.
 Assumption of conflict theory
• Society is composed of groups having competing
(different) interests which means that society is not a
system of equilibrium
• The groups/ classes have different amount of resources
• Conflict theory is a universal process
• The social universe and its components are in a state of
flux/change
• Class conflict ultimately produces positive social change
• Conflict in a society can be temporarily suppressed,
controlled, but cannot be abolished
 Criticism
• This theory has been criticized for its high focus on
change and neglecting social stability.
• Although societies are in a constant state of change,
but much of the change is minor, not revolutionary as
clarified by conflict theory
• Instead of increased exploitation of the working class,
these days they have come under the protection of
unions and labor laws
• Unlike the middle class as suggested by Weber, there
are also other classes such as lower middle class
 Postmodemism Theory
• It refers to the movement in the late 1970s and early
1980s in the field of arts, architecture, music
technology, criticism, etc. that criticizes modernism for
their love towards science, rationality and objectivity.
• The term ‘postmodernism’ means after the modern
which means that post-modernism grew from
modernism.
• Modernism refers to neo-classical, enlightenment
assumptions highlighting the role of ‘scientific
reasoning’, ‘objectivity’ and ‘universal truth’.
 Assumption
• It argues that there is no ‘universal reality’ or ‘absolute truth’
but instead focuses on the relative truths of each person.
• It argues that ‘interpretation is everything’ reality only
comes into being through our interpretations of what the
world means to us individually
• It assumes that unlike modernism, it is open, unbounded
and concerned with process and becoming
• It assumes that ‘universe is an open system, hence natural
laws are not fixed
• It reject the concept of science and rationalism
• It rejects the concept of western history as ‘progress’
 Criticism
• The paradox of the postmodern position is
that, it is skeptical (doubtful) of all the
principles and assumptions made by other
theories while it must realize that even its own
principles/assumptions are not beyond
questioning/doubt
• The main problem with postmodernism is that
it can be seen as unrealistic, idealistic and
overly sentimental and romantic
 Sociological Imagination
• The sociologists, C. Wright Mills (1916-1962)
created the concept of ‘sociological imagination’ .
• In simple words, sociological imagination refers to
the ability of individuals to understand how
his/her own unique experiences and
circumstances (such as personal troubles, success,
failure, happiness, peace, behavior etc.) relate to
history in general and social structures in
particular.
 Theoretical perspective
• As theory provides us with a perspective to
look at the world around us, which is together
called as theoretical perspective.
• It can be defined as a lens through which we
view things, working to deepen and magnify
what we see or distort them.
• It can also be thought of as frame, serving to
both include and exclude certain things from
our view.
 Sociological perspective
• Sociology is a social science that seeks to explain
and examine the social system, and in order to
explain and understand this complex social
system.
• ‘sociological perspective’ means the way of
looking at the society in order to understand and
explain the patterns of social group behavior.
• Peter Berger defined sociological perspective as
‘seeing the general in the particular.’
Interrelationship of Sociology with business
and management studies
• Enhance analytical capability
• Better employee handling
• Top market opportunities
• Maintain public relations
• Promote workplace diversity
• Understanding organizational culture
• Understand consumer behavior
• Conflict management
• Leadership role
 Roles, usefulness and application of
anthropology in business
• Provide new business thought
• Helps to manage rapid and sudden change and
turning crisis into opportunity
• Help consider both the local and the global aspects
• Helps to understand consumer behavior and
preferences
• Sustainable business practices
• Anthropologists can help manage international
business