BIOLOGY

FOR
ENGINEERS
 CHAPTER-1
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS

1. Carbohydrates
2. Nucleic acids
3. Proteins
4. Lipids
5. Enzymes
 1. Carbohydrates
 Source of energy
 Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms
 General formula is Cn(H2O)n

Classification on the basis of their molecular structure and function

a. Monosaccharides
b. Disaccharides
c. Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides
 These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose
and fructose and Galactose.
 They are easily soluble in water and serve as the primary source of
energy for the body.

Ring Structure
 Disaccharides
 These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides.
 They include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
 They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into
monosaccharides during digestion.

Ring Structure
 Polysaccharides
 These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together.
 They serve as storage molecules for energy, such as glycogen in animals
and starch in plants.
 They provide structure and support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls.
 They play important roles in cellular processes, such as cellular signaling
and recognition, and in regulating gene expression.
 Industrial Applications of Carbohydrate
 Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as
sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in food and beverage
products. They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks
and energy bars.
 Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used in pharmaceutical to
improve stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are
also used as a source of energy in medical nutrition products.
 Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as
moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to provide hydration
and improve skin and hair health.
 Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production
of biodegradable plastics, biofuels, and other renewable energy
sources.
 Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the
fields of immunology, virology, and cellular biology.
Cellulose-Based Water
Filters

Cellulose acetate material

 Cellulose-Based Water Filters
 Cellulose-based water filters are filters
made from cellulose, a carbohydrate
polymer found in plant cell walls.
 They are used to remove impurities and
contaminants from water and are an
alternative to traditional synthetic
polymer filters.
 The high mechanical strength and
hydrophilic properties of cellulose make
it an ideal material for water filtration.
 They can effectively remove particles,
pathogens, and other contaminants
from water, making it safer and more
potable.
 They are also an environmentally
friendly alternative to traditional filters,
as they are biodegradable and can be
Properties and advantages of cellulose based water
filter
 High Porosity: They have a high porosity structure, which allows them to
efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
 Biodegradability: They are made from a biodegradable material,
cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared to
synthetic polymer filters.
 Cost-effective: They are often more affordable than traditional synthetic
polymer filters.
 Good mechanical strength: They have good mechanical strength,
allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over
time.
 Chemical resistance: They are resistant to most chemicals, including
acids and bases.
 Large surface area: They have a large surface area, which enhances their
filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.
 Environmentally friendly: They are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the
environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.
 Importance of cellulose based water filters
 Safe and clean water: They can effectively remove impurities and
contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable for various
applications, including household, industrial, and agricultural use.

 Sustainability: They are made from a renewable resource, cellulose,

and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment and
promoting sustainability in water treatment processes.

 Affordability: They are often more affordable than traditional synthetic

polymer filters.

 Versatility: They can be used in various types of filtration systems and

can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
 Limitations of cellulose based water filters
 Low resistance to high temperature: They have low resistance to
high temperature and can lose their structural integrity when
exposed to high temperatures.
 Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: They may not be
efficient in removing certain contaminants, such as heavy metals,
from water.
 Limited lifespan: They have a limited lifespan and may need to be
replaced more frequently compared to synthetic polymer filters.
 May clog easily: They may clog easily when exposed to high levels
of contaminants, reducing their filtration efficiency and requiring
frequent replacement.
 May affect water taste: They may affect the taste of water by
absorbing or releasing certain chemicals or minerals, reducing the
quality of the purified water.
 Construction of cellulose-based water
filters
 Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the
water filter will depend on the desired properties such as strength,
porosity, and chemical resistance. Common cellulose materials include
paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
 Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into
small pieces, washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
 Cellulose Layer Formation: Layers are formed by either stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
 Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter
medium such as a mesh to provide stability and increase the filter surface
area.
 Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to
modify its properties, such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding
antimicrobial agents.
 Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that
provides a means to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered
water.
 Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the
desired specifications, such as filtration efficiency and flow rate.
PHA as
Bioplastic
 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of biodegradable and
biocompatible polyesters produced by microorganisms, such as
bacteria and fungi.
 They are a type of bioplasticm and are made from renewable
resources, such as sugar and cornstarch, and are considered to be an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based
plastics.

General representation of PHAs

 Properties of
PHA
 Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can break down into
water and carbon dioxide, reducing their impact on the environment.

 Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical

devices, such as sutures and implants, without causing adverse reactions
in the body.

 Mechanical properties: PHAs have similar mechanical properties to

traditional petroleum based plastics, making them suitable for various
applications.

 Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing

techniques, such as injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion.
 Engineering applications of PHA
bioplastic
 Packaging: PHA is used in various forms of
packaging such as food containers, beverage
cups, and clamshell containers.
 Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can
be used in the manufacture of medical devices
such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery
systems.
 Textiles: PHA is used in the production of
biodegradable textiles, as well as for the
production of biodegradable composites for
use in construction and furniture.
 Consumer Goods: PHA is used in the
production of various consumer goods, such as
toys, phone cases, and water bottles.
 Automotive Parts: PHA is used for the
production of biodegradable automotive parts
such as air ducts and headlamp covers.
 Electronic Devices: PHA is used for the production of
biodegradable components in electronic devices such as
smartphones and laptops.

 Aerospace: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable

parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cable
management.

 Sporting Goods: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable sporting goods such as golf tees and fishing
lures.

 Construction: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable insulation and soundproofing materials.
 PLA as Bioplastic
 Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based plastic made
from corn starch, sugarcane, or other natural resources.

Spool of PLA filaments

 Properties of PLA as bioplastic
 Biodegradable: PLA can be broken down by microorganisms in
industrial composting facilities, reducing waste in landfills.
 Renewable: PLA is derived from renewable resources such as corn
starch or sugarcane, reducing dependence on finite petroleum
resources.
 Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent appearance,
making it suitable for packaging applications.
 Heat-resistant: PLA has a relatively low melting temperature and is
not recommended for high heat applications, but it can maintain its
shape and stability up to 60°C.
 Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible, making it
suitable for food packaging and medical devices.
 Stiffness and Strength: PLA has good stiffness and strength, but not
as strong as traditional petroleum-based plastics.
 Printability: PLA is commonly used in 3D printing due to its good
printability and ease of use.
 Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic
 Automotive parts: PLA is used for the production of
biodegradable automotive parts such as air ducts
and headlamp covers.
 Electronic Devices: PLA is used for the production
of biodegradable components in electronic devices
such as smartphones and laptops.
 Aerospace: PLA is used for the production of
biodegradable parts in aerospace applications, such
as insulation and cable management.
 Sporting Goods: PLA is used for the production of
biodegradable sporting goods such as golf tees and
fishing lures.
 Construction: PLA is used for the production of
biodegradable insulation and soundproofing
materials.
 Agricultural Equipment: PLA is used for the
production of biodegradable parts in agricultural
equipment such as seed trays and greenhouse film.
 Medical Equipment: PLA is used for the production
of biodegradable components in medical
equipment such as diagnostic equipment and
 2. Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are biopolymers
• They store genetic information
• They transfer genetic information

Types of nucleic acids

a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• DNA is the genetic material that carries
instructions for the development,
functioning, and reproduction of all living
organisms.
• DNA is a double stranded helix structure
composed of nucleotides, which consist
of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, or thymine).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• RNA is involved in the expression of the
genetic information stored in DNA by
carrying the message from the DNA to the
ribosome, where it is used to build
proteins.
• RNA is a single-stranded molecule
composed of nucleotides, which consist
of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base (adenine,
 DNA Vaccine
• A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA
to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen.
• The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA into the body, where
it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins.
• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which trigger
an immune response and produce of antibodies against the pathogen.
• DNA vaccines are being actively researched and developed for a range of
diseases, including cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).
 DNA Vaccine for Rabies
• A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of
rabies virus DNA to stimulate an immune response against the virus.
• The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus DNA into the body,
where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins.
• These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells,
which trigger an immune response and produce antibodies against
the rabies virus.

Rabies Virus
 Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies
They have advantages over traditional vaccines, including their ability to
stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune response with fewer doses
required, as well as their ease of manufacture and storage. In particular,
spread of infectious diseases like rabies.
In the case of rabies, DNA vaccines have several key advantages:
• Efficacy: They are highly effective in preventing rabies infection in both
animal and human trials. Ex: dogs
• Long-lasting protection: They can stimulate a strong and long-lasting
immune response by protecting animals against rabies for extended
periods of time.
• Ease of administration: DNA vaccines are easy to administer, as they can
be given via injection or even delivered orally.
• Cost-effective: DNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to produce
compared to traditional vaccines.
• Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not contain live virus
particles, which means that they are generally safer and have a lower
risk of side effects compared to traditional vaccines.
 RNA Vaccines
RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from a
pathogen, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against
the disease.
 They work by introducing the pathogen's RNA into the body, where it
is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins.
 These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which
trigger an immune response and produce antibodies against the
pathogen.
 RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines,
including faster production time and the ability to target multiple
antigens.
 RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly.
 RNA vaccines are also thought to be safer than traditional vaccines, as
they do not contain any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease.
 RNA vaccines are currently being developed and tested for a range of
diseases, including COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.
 RNA Vaccines for Covid19
RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a
type of vaccine that use genetic
material from the SARS-CoV-2 virus,
in the form of RNA, to stimulate an
immune response against the virus.

The vaccine works by introducing

the virus's RNA into the body, where
it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral proteins.

• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which trigger an
immune response and produce antibodies against the virus.
• The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized
for emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of
people worldwide.
• Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency
use in December 2020.
Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19
RNA vaccines have emerged as a promising tool for preventing
the spread of COVID-19, offering several key advantages over
traditional vaccine approaches.
High efficacy: RNA vaccines have been shown to be highly
effective at preventing COVID-19 infections.
The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines have reported
efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials.
Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target
new strains or variants of the virus.
Safe: RNA vaccines are generally considered safe, as they do not
contain any live virus particles.
Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines have the potential to be
used in the prevention of other infectious diseases, such as
influenza, HIV, and Zika, as well as in the treatment of cancer.
 Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting (DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting) is a
technique used in forensic science to identify an individual based on
their unique DNA profile.
The process involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA,
called markers, which can vary from person to person.
 Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting
Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic applications
• Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample, such as blood,
semen, or hair and, purified and processed to isolate the DNA.
• DNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified using a technique
called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces many copies of a
specific DNA region, which allows for more accurate analysis.
DNA analysis: The amplified DNA is
then analyzed using a technique
called gel electrophoresis. The DNA
fragments are separated based on
size and charge, and a DNA profile is
generated.
DNA comparison: The DNA profile
obtained from the biological sample
is then compared to the DNA
profiles of other individuals, such as
suspects or victims, to determine if
there is a match.
• DNA comparison is typically done manually by comparing them to control
samples to determine if there is a match.

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to play a more prominent role in DNA

analysis.

• The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel, which represent

specific DNA fragments.

• The bands are compared to those from a control sample, such as blood or
saliva from a suspect or victim, to see if there is a match.

• If there is a match, it is considered strong evidence that the biological

sample came from that individual.

• It has also been used to identify victims of natural disasters and mass
casualties, and to resolve paternity disputes.