Computer Networks

Module3-Subsection-I

Local Area Network: Ethernet:

By

Dr. Shahana Gajala Qureshi

Multiple Access Links and Protocols
ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD
Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data
between two devices or nodes.
 It divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple
access resolution/protocol.
 The upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error control
in the data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of data link control.
 Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the collision or
multiple access on a channel.
 Hence it is termed as media access control or the multiple access resolutions.
Data Link Control
 A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a
dedicated link using various techniques such as framing, error control and
flow control of data packets in the computer network.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
What is a multiple access protocol?
 When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets,
the data link control is enough to handle the channel.
 Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data
between two devices.
 In that case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously
transmits the data over the channel. It may create collision and cross talk.
 Hence, the multiple access protocol is required to reduce the collision and
avoid crosstalk between the channels.
For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher
asks a question, all the students (small channels) in the class start
answering the question at the same time (transferring the data
simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time due to which
data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher
(multiple access protocol) to manage the students and make them one
answer.
 Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into
the different process as:

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols

A. Random Access Protocol

 In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel.
 In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another
station or any station control another station.
 Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the
data frame.
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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a
collision or data conflict.
 Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence, it
does not receive by the receiver end.
 Depending on the status of the medium, any station may send data ( idle or busy). It
has two attributes:
 There is no set timing for data transmission.
 The order of the stations delivering data is not fixed.
Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames
on the channel.
 Aloha (Advocates of Linux Open-source Hawaii Association)
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
 CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection)
 CSMA/CA (Carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance)

1. ALOHA Random Access Protocol

 It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a
shared medium to transmit data.
 Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously
when a data frameset is available for transmission. 5
Multiple Access Links and Protocols
Aloha Rules
1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data
through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision
detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 As we can see in the above, there are four stations for accessing a shared
channel and transmitting data frames.
 Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the same
time.
 Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 3.2, are successfully transmitted to the
receiver end.
 At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed.
 Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions
can occur, and both will suffer damage.
 If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of
the second frame.
 Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the
data frame.
Slotted Aloha
 The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency
because pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting.
 In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval
called slots.
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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame
can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed
to be sent to each slot.
 And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the
station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at
the beginning of two or more station time slot.
 Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.
 The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted
Aloha is S = G * e ^ - G.
 The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
 It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to
sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data.
 To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance,
the CSMA method was developed.
 The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium
before trying to use it.
 Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station first listen
to the medium (or check the state of the medium) before sending.
 In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "sense before transmit" or
"listen before talk.“
 CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it.
 It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel.
 Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
 Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
CSMA Access Modes
What should a station do if the channel is busy? What should a station do if the
channel is idle?
a) 1-Persistent:
 The I-persistent method is simple and straightforward.
 In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame
immediately (with probability I).
 In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the
shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data.
 Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and
broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
 This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations
may find the line idle and send their frames immediately.
b) Non-Persistent:
 It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data,
each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously),
and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.
 The nonpersistent approach reduces the chance of collision because it is
unlikely that two or more stations will wait the same amount of time and retry
to send simultaneously.
 However, this method reduces the efficiency of the network because the
medium remains idle when there may be stations with frames to send.
c) P-Persistent:
 It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes.
 The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the
channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability.
 If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random
time and resumes the frame with the next time slot.
 The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two
strategies. It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency. In this
method, after the station finds the line idle it follows these steps:

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
1. With probability p, the station sends its frame.
2. With probability q = 1 - p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time
slot
and checks the line again.
a. If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses the
backoff procedure.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
Flow diagram for three persistence methods

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
3. CSMA/ CD
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to
transmit data frames.
 The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer.
 Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames,
and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the
transmission was successful.
 If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame.
 If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop
signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission.
 After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
4. CSMA/ CA
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol
for carrier transmission of data frames.
 It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
 When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to
check whether the channel is clear.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the
data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver.
 But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the collision of
frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel.
 Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
a) Inter-frame space:
 In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets
the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data.
 Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is called
the Inter-frame space or IFS.
 However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the station.
b) Contention window:
 In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots.
 When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a
random slot number of slots as wait time.

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Multiple Access Links and Protocols
 If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process, except that
it restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is
inactive.
c) Acknowledgment:
 In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame to the
shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.

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Wired LANs: Ethernet
 Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly
used in local area networks, metropolitan area networks and wide area
networks.
 A system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area
network, with protocols to control the passing of information and to
avoid simultaneous transmission by two or more systems.
 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a
limited geographic area such as a building or a campus.
 Although a LAN can be used as an isolated network to connect computers in
an organization for the sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today
are also linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet.
 The LAN market has seen several technologies such as Ethernet, Token Ring,
Token Bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN. Some of these technologies survived for a
while, but Ethernet is by far the dominant technology.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
STANDARD ETHERNET
 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research
Center (PARC). Since then, it has gone through four generations:
Standard Ethernet (10Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1
Gbps), and Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps).

i) Standard Ethernet: A standard Ethernet network can transmit data at a rate

up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps).
- Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10
Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and
ease of installation.
 These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace
and the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols, make
Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today.
 The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an Ethernet
standard known as IEEE Standard 802.3.
 This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also
specifies how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols
can communicate efficiently.
ii) Fast Ethernet:
 The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for
Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds.
 This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps with
only minimal changes to the existing cable structure.
 Fast Ethernet provides faster throughput for video, multimedia, graphics,
Internet surfing and stronger error detection and correction.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
There are three types of Fast Ethernet:
a) 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable;
b) 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and
c) 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP
cable.
 The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its close
compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.
iii) Gigabit Ethernet:
 Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster communication
networks with applications such as multimedia and Voice over IP (VoIP).
 Also known as “gigabit-Ethernet-over-copper” or 1000Base-T, GigE is a
version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster than 100Base-T.
 It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as an enterprise
backbone.
 Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a Gigabit
Ethernet backbone to interconnect high performance switches, routers and
servers.
 From the data link layer of the OSI model upward, the look and
implementation of Gigabit Ethernet is identical to that of Ethernet. 23
IEEE Standards Cont...
 The most important differences between Gigabit Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
include the additional support of full duplex operation in the MAC layer and
the data rates.
iv) 10 Gigabit Ethernet:
 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet standards.
 IEEE 802.3ae defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of 10Gbits/s
that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit Ethernet.
 Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on the
use of optical fiber connections.
 This developing standard is moving away from a LAN design that broadcasts
to all nodes, toward a system which includes some elements of wide area
routing.
 As it is still very new, which of the standards will gain commercial
acceptance has yet to be determined.

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IEEE Standards Cont...

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IEEE Standards Cont...
MAC Sublayer
 In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the
access method.
 It also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the
physical layer.
Frame Format
 The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length
or type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper-layer data, and the CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Checks).
 Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.
 Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
a) Preamble:
 The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating
0s and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it
to synchronize its input timing.
 The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse.
 The 56-bit pattern allows the stations to miss some bits at the beginning of
the frame.
 The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally)
part of the frame.
b) Start frame delimiter (SFD):
 The second field (1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
 The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization.
 The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the
destination address.
c) Destination address (DA):
 The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination
station or stations to receive the packet. We will discuss addressing shortly
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IEEE Standards Cont...
d) Source address (SA):
 The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of
the packet. We will discuss addressing shortly.
e) Length or type:
 This field is defined as a type field or length field.
 The original Ethernet used this field as the type field to define the upper-layer
protocol using the MAC frame.
 The IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in
the data field. Both uses are common today.
f) Data:
 This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols.
 It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
g) CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checks):
 The last field contains error detection information.

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IEEE Standards Cont...

Addressing:
 Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or
printer) has its own network interface card (NIC).
 The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte
physical address.
 The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), normally written in hexadecimal
notation, with a colon between the bytes.

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses :

 A source address is always a unicast address—the frame comes from only one
station.
- The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast. 29
IEEE Standards Cont...
Frame Length
 Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum
lengths of a frame.

 The minimum length restriction is required for the correct operation of

CSMA/CD.
 An Ethernet frame needs to have a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes.
 The standard defines the maximum length of a frame (without preamble and
SFD field) as 1518 bytes.
 If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the maximum length of the
payload is 1500 bytes
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Figure shows how to distinguish a unicast address from a multicast address. -
If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the
address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.

 A unicast destination address defines only one recipient; the relationship

between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one.
 A multicast destination address defines a group of addresses; the
relationship between the sender and the receivers is one-to-many.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
What is IEEE 802.3?
 802.3, or IEEE 802.3, is a working group of standard specifications for
Ethernet, a method of packet-based physical communication in a local area
network maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).
 In general, IEEE 802.3 standards specify the physical media and the working
characteristics of Ethernet.
 The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementations; four of
the most common are:

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IEEE Standards Cont...
(i)10Base5: Thick Ethernet
 The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
 The nickname derives from the size of the cable, which is roughly the size of
a garden hose and too stiff to bend with your hands.
 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with an
external transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick
coaxial cable.

 The transceiver is responsible for transmitting, receiving, and detecting

collisions.
 The transceiver is connected to the station via a transceiver cable that
provides separate paths for sending and receiving. This means that collision
can only happen in the coaxial cable.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500 m, otherwise,
there is excessive degradation of the signal.
 If a length of more than 500 m is needed, up to five segments, each a
maximum of 500-meter, can be connected using repeaters.
(ii)10Base2:
 Thin Ethernet: The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet,
or Cheapernet.
 10Base2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more
flexible.
 The cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations.
 In this case, the transceiver is normally part of the network interface card
(NIC), which is installed inside the station.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Note that the collision here occurs in the thin coaxial cable.
 This implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because thin
coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial.
 Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible.
However, the length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m)
due to the high level of attenuation in thin coaxial cable.
(iii) 10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet:
 The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet.
 10Base-T uses a physical star topology.
 The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
 Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and
one for receiving) between the station and the hub.
 Any collision here happens in the hub.
 Compared to 10Base5 or 10Base2, we can see that the hub actually replaces
the coaxial cable as far as a collision is concerned.
 The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to
minimize the effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
Summary
 Table shows a summary of Standard Ethernet implementations.

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)

 Token bus is a popular standard for token passing LANs.
 It was standardized by IEEE standard 802.4 and is mainly used for
industrial applications.
 In a token bus LAN, stations are used to create a virtual ring, and tokens are
then passed from one station to another using this virtual ring.
 Every station or node in the token bus network knows the address of its "left"
and "right" station.
 A node or station can transmit the data only when it holds a token.
 The working of the Token Bus is similar to a token ring.
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IEEE Standards Cont...

(iv) 10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet:

 Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most
common is called 10Base-F.
 10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub.
 The stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
 The token is required for a station to transmit data.
 When a node on the virtual ring has nothing to send, the token is passed on to
the next node.
 A token bus network is similar to the token ring network but works
around the virtual ring instead of a physical ring.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus
 In a computer network, a token is a brief message that travels among the
stations and provides them permission for transmission.
 When a station receives a token, if it has data to transmit, it transmits the
data and then passes the token to the following node or station; otherwise, it
just passes the token to the next station.

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IEEE Standards Cont...

What is Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)?

 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a network for implementing token rings over
the virtual ring in LANs.
 The physical media in a token bus uses coaxial cables and has a bus or tree
topology.
 The nodes or stations are used to create a virtual ring, and the token is passed
from one node to another node in a sequential manner along this virtual ring.
 The addresses of each node's preceding and succeeding stations are known
to them.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
Frame Format of Token Bus
 The following are the fields in the frame format of the token bus:

 Preamble: It is a 1-byte field and is used for bit synchronization.

 Start Delimiter: It is a 1-byte field that marks the beginning of the frame.
 Frame Control: It is a 1-byte field that specifies the frame type and
distinguishes data frames from control frames.
 Destination Address: This is a 2 to 6 bytes field containing the address of the
destination station.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Source Address: This is a 2 to 6 bytes field containing the address of the
source station.
 Data: This variable length field carries the data from the network layer. The
field can be up to 8182 bytes when using 2-byte addresses and 8174 bytes
when using 6-byte addresses.
 Checksum: It is a 4-byte field with checksum bits that detect errors in
transmitted data.
 End Delimiter: It is a 1-byte field that marks the end of the frame.
The Token-passing Bus Protocol Functions
The token bus protocol offers the following functions:
 Ring initialization: Ring initialization is performed when a network is
powered on for the first time and after a catastrophic error.
 Station addition: Station addition is selectively performed when a station
holding a token allows the insertion of a new successor station (i.e., a
brand-new station with an address) that lies between that station and its
existing successor station.
 Station removal: Station removal can be performed by disconnecting it
from the LAN or sending a new successor identifier to the station's
predecessor. Recovery mechanisms establish the appropriate new logical
ring configuration in the later scenario. 41
IEEE Standards Cont...
 Recovery and Management: Recovery from failures such as bus idle (lack
of activity on the bus), token-passing failure (lack of valid frame
transmission), the existence of duplicate token, and the detection of a station
with a malfunctioning receiver are all included in management and recovery.
Physical Layer of the Token Bus
 The physical layer of the token bus can be made of the conventional 75-
ohm coaxial cable that is used for cable TV.
 Various modulation techniques are employed. The various modulation
techniques used are multilevel dual binary amplitude-modulated phase shift
keying, phase coherent frequency shift keying, and phase continuous
frequency shift keying.
 It is possible to get signal speeds in the 1 Mbps, 5 Mbps, and 10 Mbps
ranges. The token bus's physical layer is completely incompatible with
the IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) standard.
MAC Sublayer Function
 Stations are added to the ring in ascending order of station address when
it is first initialized.
 Tokens are passed from high to low addresses.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Once a station receives the token, it can transmit frames for a predefined
timeframe.
 If a station doesn't have any data, it passes the token right away.
 The token bus divides traffic into four priority classes, with 0 being the
lowest and 6 being the highest: 0, 2, 4, and 6.
 Each station has four internal substations, one for each priority level (0, 2,
4, and 6).
 Data are prioritized and routed to one of the four substations as input arrives
at the MAC sublayer from above.
 As a result, each station keeps track of its own queue of frames to be
transmitted.
 A token is passed internally to the priority six substation when it enters
the station via the cable so that it can start transmitting its frames if it has
any at that time.
 When it is finished, or its timeout ends, the token is passed to the priority
four substations, which can transmit frames until its timeout expires. The
token is then internally transferred to the priority two substations after that.
 This process continues until the priority 0 substation has sent all of its frames
or its time has run out.
 The token is then passed to the next station in the ring. 43
IEEE Standards Cont...


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IEEE Standards Cont...
Token Ring (IEEE Standard 802.5)
 In a token ring, a special bit pattern, known as a token, circulates around
the ring when all the stations are idle. Token Ring is formed by the nodes
connected in ring format.

 The principle used in the token ring network is that a token is circulating
in the ring, and whichever node grabs that token will have the right to
transmit the data.
 Whenever a station wants to transmit a frame, it inverts a single bit of
the 3-byte token, which instantaneously changes it into a normal data packet.
As there is only one token, there can be only one transmission at a time.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Since the token rotates in the ring, it is guaranteed that every node gets the
token within some specified time.
 So there is an upper bound on the time of waiting to grab the token so that
starvation is avoided.
Modes of Operation
 There are various modes of operations which are as follows −
1) Listen Mode − In the listen mode, the incoming bits are simply transmitted
to the output line with no further action taken.
2) Talk or Transmit Node − The ring interface is set to the talk or transmit
node when the station connected to the ring interface has acquired a token.
The direct input to output connection through the single bit buffer is
disconnected.
3) By-pass Mode − This mode reaches when the node is down. Any data is just
bypassed. There is no one-bit delay in this mode.
Handling Breakage
 The main problem with a ring network is that the network goes down
when the ring cable breaks down or gets tempered. The solution to this
problem is the use of a wire centre as shown in the fig.
46
IEEE Standards Cont...

47
IEEE Standards Cont...
 This wire center bypasses the terminals that have gone down from the ring. This is
done by connecting the bypass relay for that station.
 These relays are generally controlled by the software that operates automatically in
case of station failure.
 The use of a wire center improves the reliability and maintainability of the ring
network.
Priority and Reservation
 In IEEE 802.5, each station has a priority code. As a token circulates on the ring, any
station which wants to transmit the frame may reserve the token by entering its
priority code in the Access Control (AC) field of the token frame or data frame.
Time Bounding
 A station that is in possession of the token only can transmit his frames. It may
transmit one or more data frames but before the expiry of Token Holding Time
(THT).
 Typically, this time is 10 milliseconds. After the THT, the token frame must be
handed over to some other station.
The Monitor Station
 The monitor station sets the timer on when each time the token passes.
 If the token does not regenerate in the allotted time, it is assumed to be lost, and then
the monitor station generates a new token and sends it to the ring.
 If the monitor fails, a second station is designated as back-up. 48
IEEE Standards Cont...
The difference between IEEE 802.3, 802.4 and 802.5

49
IEEE Standards Cont...
Wireless LAN Protocols
 Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN
(Local Area Wireless Network).
 WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network
(LAN) through a wireless connection.
 The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs.
For path sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA
(carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an
encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
 Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as
building or an office.
 WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still
connected to the network.
WLAN Architecture
Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:
1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all
wireless LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the physical
layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service Set(BSS).
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).
Each Wi-Fi network standard has two parameters :
 Speed –
This is the data transfer rate of the network measured in Mbps (1 megabit per
second).
 Frequency –
On what radio frequency, the network is carried on. Two bands of frequency
for the Wi-Fi are 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. In short, it is the frequency of radio
wave that carries data.
Two Frequencies of Wi-Fi signal :
 Wi-Fi routers that come with 2.4 GHz or5 GHz are called the single-band
routers but a lot of new routers support both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency
they are called dual-band routers.
 The 2.4 GHz is a common Wi-Fi band, but it is also used by other appliances
like Bluetooth devices, wireless phones, cameras, etc. Because of the signal
used by so many devices, the signal becomes overcrowded and speed
becomes slow.
 So 5 GHz comes into the picture, It is new, and not commonly used, and
because it is used by fewer devices (gaming and streaming HDTV.) there is
no signal crowding and interference. 51
IEEE Standards Cont...

Different standards of Wi-Fi :

 These are the Wi-Fi standards that evolved from 1997 to 2021. In 1997 IEEE
created one standard and gave the name 802.11.
IEEE 802.11 –
 It was developed in 1997.
 Speed is about 2 Mbps (2 megabits per second).
IEEE 802.11a –
 This standard is developed in 1999.
 802.11a is useful for commercial and industrial purposes.
 It works on a 5 GHz frequency.

52
IEEE Standards Cont...
 The maximum speed of 802.11a is 54 Mbps.
 This standard was made to avoid interference with other devices which use
the 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11b –
 This standard also created with 802.11a in 1999.
 The difference is that it uses a 2.4 GHz frequency band.
 The speed of 802.11b is 11 Mbps.
 This standard is useful for home and domestic use.
IEEE 802.11g –
 This standard is designed in 2003.
 Basically, it has combined the properties of both 802.11a and 802.11b.
 The frequency band used in this is 2.4 GHz for better coverage.
 And the maximum speed is also up to 54 Mbps.
IEEE 802.11n –
 This was introduced in 2009.
 802.11n operates on both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, they are
operated individually.
 The data transfer rate is around 600 Mbps. 53
IEEE Standards Cont...
IEEE 802.11ac –
 This standard is developed in 2013 named 802.11ac.
 Wi-Fi 802.11ac works on the 5 GHz band.
 The maximum speed of this standard is 1.3 Gbps.
 It gives less range because of the 5 GHz band, but nowadays most of the
devices are working on 802.11n and 802.11ac standards.
 IEEE 802.11ax –
 It is the newest and advanced version of Wi-Fi.
 This is released in 2019.
 Operates on both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz for better coverage as well as better
speed.
 User will get 10 Gbps of maximum speed around 30-40 % improvement over
802.11ac

54
IEEE Standards Cont...

55
IEEE Standards Cont...
 Now recently Wi-Fi alliance announced the new naming scheme for Wi-Fi
standards. Rather than the complex names like “802.11b” name now we can
call as “Wi-Fi 1“, and similar for others. This will help consumers for easy to
understand as 802.11 is difficult to understand.
New Naming Standards :

56
IEEE Standards Cont...
 MAC Frame: The MAC layer frame consists of 9 fields. The following
figure shows the basic structure of an IEEE 802.11 MAC data frame along
with the content of the frame control field.

1. Frame Control(FC) – It is 2 bytes long field which defines type of frame and
some control information. Various fields (11 fields) present in FC are:
 Version: It is a 2 bit long field which indicates the current protocol version
which is fixed to be 0 for now.
 Type: It is a 2 bit long field which determines the function of frame i.e
management(00), control(01) or data(10). The value 11 is reserved.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
 Subtype: It is a 4 bit long field which indicates sub-type of the frame like 0000 for
association request, 1000 for beacon.
 To DS: It is a 1 bit long field which when set indicates that destination frame is for
DS(distribution system).
 From DS: It is a 1 bit long field which when set indicates frame coming from DS.
 More frag (More fragments): It is 1 bit long field which when set to 1 means
frame is followed by other fragments.
 Retry: It is 1-bit long field, if the current frame is a retransmission of an earlier
frame, this bit is set to 1.
 Power Mgmt (Power management): It is 1-bit long field that indicates the mode
of a station after successful transmission of a frame. Set to 1 the field indicates that
the station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the station stays
active.
 More data: It is 1-bit long field that is used to indicate receiver that a sender has
more data to send than the current frame. This can be used by an access point to
indicate to a station in power-save mode that more packets are buffered or it can be
used by a station to indicate to an access point after being polled that more polling
is necessary as the station has more data ready to transmit.
 WEP: It is 1 bit long field which indicates that the standard security mechanism of
802.11 is applied.
 Order: It is 1 bit long field, if this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be
processed in strict order. 58
IEEE Standards Cont...
2. Duration/ID – It is 4 bytes long field which contains the value indicating the
period of time in which the medium is occupied(in µs).
3. Address 1 to 4 – These are 6 bytes long fields which contain standard IEEE
802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The meaning of each address depends on
the DS bits in the frame control field.
4. SC (Sequence control) – It is 16 bits long field which consists of 2 sub-fields,
i.e., Sequence number (12 bits) and Fragment number (4 bits). Since
acknowledgement mechanism frames may be duplicated hence, a sequence
number is used to filter duplicate frames.
5. Data – It is a variable length field which contain information specific to
individual frames which is transferred transparently from a sender to the
receiver(s).
6. CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) – It is 4 bytes long field which contains a
32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.

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IEEE Standards Cont...
Advantages of WLANs
 Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be
placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
 Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without
previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
 Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices
which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but
also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
 Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood
etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break
down completely in disasters.
 Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average
lower than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for
two reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the wireless network via
an access point for the first user, adding additional users to a network will not
increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of
cabling and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
 Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.
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IEEE Standards Cont...
Disadvantages of WLANs
 Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired
networks. The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations
is radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference and higher
delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
 Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many
companies have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization
functionality plus many enhanced features. Most components today adhere to
the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
 Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
 Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so,
national and international frequency regulations have to be considered.
 Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the
LAN design should take this into account and implement special power
saving modes and power management functions.
 License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special
license to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license
free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band. 61
IEEE Standards Cont...
 License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special
license to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license
free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission,
many other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum
cleaner, train engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be
adjusted for perfect transmission is a standard office or production
environment.

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Thank You

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