Comparison of Digital

Modulation Techniques
Bandwidth Efficiency & Power Efficiency

MFSK
Shannon’s Limit
Comparison of Digital Modulation
Comparison of Digital Modulation
Spectral Efficiencies in practical
radios
• GSM- Digital Cellular
– Data Rate = 270kb/s,
bandwidth = 200kHz
– Bandwidth Efficiency = 270/200
=1.35bits/sec/Hz
– Modulation: Gaussian Minimum Shift
Keying (FSK with orthogonal
frequencies).
 CONTD….
– “Gaussian” refers to filter response.

• IS-54 North American Digital Cellular

– Data Rate = 48kb/s, bandwidth = 30kHz
– Bandwidth Efficiency = 48/30
=1.6bits/sec/Hz
– Modulation: pi/4 DQPSK
 Modulation Summary
• Phase Shift Keying is often used, as it provides a
highly bandwidth efficient modulation scheme.

• QPSK, modulation is very robust, but requires some

form of linear amplification.

• OQPSK and p/4-QPSK can be implemented, and

reduce the envelope variations of the signal.

• High level M-ary schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very

bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise and
require linear amplification.
 CONTD….
• Constant envelope schemes (such as GMSK)
can be employed since an efficient, non-linear
amplifier can be used.

• Coherent reception provides better performance

than differential, but requires a more complex
receiver.
Equalization, Diversity, and
Channel Coding

20
Equalization, Diversity, and
Channel Coding

• Three techniques are used independently or

in tandem to improve receiver signal quality

• Equalization compensates for ISI created by

multipath with time dispersive channels
(W>BC)
– Change the overall response to remove ISI
Equalization, Diversity, and
Channel Coding
• Diversity also compensates for fading
channel impairments, and is usually
implemented by using two or more
receiving antennas
– Multiple received copies: Spatial
diversity, antenna polarization diversity,
frequency diversity, time diversity.
– Reduces the depth and duration of the
fades experienced by a receiver in a flat
fading (narrowband) channel
• Channel Coding improves mobile
communication link performance by
adding redundant data bits in the
transmitted message
– Channel coding is used by the Rx to
detect or correct some (or all) of the
errors introduced by the channel (Post
detection technique)
– Block code and convolutional code
 Equalization Techniques
• The term equalization can be used to describe
any signal processing operation that minimizes
ISI
• Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer:
training and tracking
• Three factors affect the time spanning over
which an equalizer converges: equalizer
algorithm, equalizer structure and time rate of
change of the multipath radio channel
• TDMA wireless systems are particularly well
suited for equalizers
 Equalization Techniques

vn ISI
rn zn
dn Symbol
Mapper Channel
Equalizer
Decision
Device d̂ n
 Channel Response
• Equalizer is usually implemented at
baseband or at IF in a receiver
y(t )  x(t )  f (t )  n (t )
b
f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)
nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the
equalizer
heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
Block Diagram
Equalization
• If the channel is frequency selective, the
equalizer enhances the frequency components
with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong
frequencies in the received frequency response
• For a time-varying channel, an adaptive
equalizer is needed to track the channel
variations
dˆ t   y t   heq t 
 x t   f 
t  heq t   mb t  heq t 

 δ t 
 F   f   H eq  f 1
 Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer

• Traversal filter with N delay elements, N+1

taps, and N+1 tunable complex weights
• These weights are updated continuously by
an adaptive algorithm
• The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the
error signal ek
 Summary
• Diversity
• Channel coding
• Equalization Techniques
• Channel responses
• Basic structure of Adaptive Equalizer
 Questions
• Define power efficiency
• Define diversity technology
• What is spectral diversity
• Advantages of channel coding
• Draw the basic structure of Adaptive
equalizer
Equalization, Diversity, and
Channel Coding

21
Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer
 Minimize Estimation Error
• Classical equalization theory : using training
sequence to minimize the cost function
E[e(k) e*(k)]
• Recent techniques for adaptive algorithm : blind
algorithms
– Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA, used for
constant envelope modulation)
– Spectral Coherence Restoral Algorithm
(SCORE, exploits spectral redundancy or
cyclostationarity in the Tx signal)
 Derivation
• Error signal ek  xk  ykT  k  xk   kT yk
where
yk   yk yk  N 
T
yk 1 yk  2 ....

 k  ωk ωk 1 ωk 2 .... ωk  N 
T

2
• Mean square error ek  xk2   kT yk ykT  k  2 xk ykT  k

• Expected MSE
  E ek  2
  Ex  
2
k
T
R  2 p T 
where
 Derivation

 yk2 yk yk 1 yk yk  2 .... yk yk  N 
 
yk21

R  E yk y*
 E  yk 1 yk
 ....
yk 1 yk  2 .... yk 1 yk  N 
.... .... 
k
.... ....
 2 
 yk  N yk yk  N yk 1 yk  N yk  2 .... yk  N 

p  Exk yk   Exk yk xk yk 2 .... xk yk  N 

T
xk yk 1
 Derivation
• Optimum weight vector ˆ 1
ωR p
• Minimum mean square error (MMSE)

 
ξ min  E    p R p
2 T 1

Τ
 
 E 2  p ω̂
• Minimizing the MSE tends to reduce the bit error
rate
Training Training
Sequence Data transmission Sequence Data transmission

Training Sequence then Data transmission within

each frame
 Classification of Equalizer

• if d(t) is not in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the

equalization is linear
• if d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the
equalizer, the equalization is nonlinear
 Linear transversal equalizer
• LTE, made up of tapped delay lines
ARMA Model (FIR, IIR)
Linear Transversal Equalizer
 Linear Transversal Equalizer
N2
ˆ
 d k   Cn y k n
*

n N1


 E e(n) 
T T
2
  No
2  T F( e jt )  N o
2 d 

jω t
F(e ) :frequency response of the channel

No :noise spectral density

Lattice Filter
 Characteristics of Lattice Filter
• Advantages
– Numerical stability
– Faster convergence
– Unique structure allows the dynamic
assignment of the most effective length
• Disadvantages
– The structure is more complicated
 Nonlinear Equalization
• Used in applications where the
channel distortion is too severe
• Three effective methods
– Decision Feedback Equalization
(DFE)
– Maximum Likelihood Symbol
Detection
– Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimator (MLSE)
 Nonlinear Equalization--DFE
• Basic idea : once an information symbol
has been detected and decided upon, the
ISI that it induces on future symbols can be
estimated and substracted out before
detection of subsequent symbols
• Can be realized in either the direct
transversal form or as a lattice filter
N2 N3
 d̂ k   C y k  n   Fi d k i
*
n
n N1 i 1


 E e(n)
2

min
T T
 exp{   ln[
2 T
No
2 ]d}
F( e jT )  N o
DFE
 Predictive DFE
• Predictive DFE (proposed by Belfiore and
Park)
• Consists of an FFF and an FBF, the latter
is called a noise predictor
• Predictive DFE performs as well as
conventional DFE as the limit in the number
of taps in FFF and the FBF approach infinity
• The FBF in predictive DFE can also be
realized as a lattice structure
• The RLS algorithm can be used to yield fast
convergence
Predictive DFE
 Summary
• Minimize Estimation Error
• Cost Function
• Classification of Equalizer
• Linear transversal Equalizer
• Non Linear Equalizer
• Filters
 Questions
• Define Equalizer
• Draw basic structure of equalizer
• Define Minimum mean square error
• How Minimum mean square error can be calculated
• Classification Equalizer
• Draw the Linear Transversal Equalizer
• What are the advantages of Linear Transversal
Equalizer
• Explain the Non Linear Equalizer
• Draw and explain DFE and Predictive DFE
Equalization, Diversity, and
Channel Coding

22
 MLSE
• MLSE tests all possible data sequences
(rather than decoding each received symbol
by itself ), and chooses the data sequence
with the maximum probability as the output
• Usually has a large computational
requirement
• First proposed by Forney using a basic
MLSE estimator structure and implementing
it with the Viterbi algorithm
MLSE

• MLSE requires knowledge of the channel

characteristics in order to compute the
matrics for making decisions
• MLSE also requires knowledge of the
statistical distribution of the noise
corrupting the signal
MLSE
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization
• Performance measures for an
algorithm
– Rate of convergence
– Misadjustment
– Computational complexity
– Numerical properties
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

• Factors dominate the choice of an

equalization structure and its algorithm
– The cost of computing platform
– The power budget
– The radio propagation characteristics
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization
• The speed of the mobile unit determines
the channel fading rate and the Doppler
spread, which is related to the coherent
time of the channel directly
• The choice of algorithm, and its
corresponding rate of convergence,
depends on the channel data rate and
coherent time
• The number of taps used in the equalizer
design depends on the maximum
expected time delay spread of the channel
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

• The circuit complexity and processing time

increases with the number of taps and delay
elements

• Three classic equalizer algorithms : zero

forcing (ZF), least mean squares (LMS), and
recursive least squares (RLS) algorithms
 Zero forcing (ZF) Algorithm

• The equalizer coefficients are chosen to force

the combined channel and the euqliser
response to zero at all but one of the NT
spaced sample points.
• The impulse Response of the equalizer is the
inverse of the Channel
• Hch (f) Heq (f) = 1, | f| < 1/2T
• By letting the length of the equalizer to infinity
, zero ISI at the output is obtained.
 Least Mean Square Algorithm
• Error signal ek  xk  ykT  k  xk   kT yk
where
yk   yk yk  N 
T
yk 1 yk  2 ....

 k  ωk ωk 1 ωk 2 .... ωk  N 
T

2
• Mean square error ek  xk2   kT yk ykT  k  2 xk ykT  k

• Expected MSE
  E ek  2
  Ex  
2
k
T
R  2 p T 
where
 Derivation

 yk2 yk yk 1 yk yk  2 .... yk yk  N 
 
yk21

R  E yk y*
 E  yk 1 yk
 ....
yk 1 yk  2 .... yk 1 yk  N 
.... .... 
k
.... ....
 2 
 yk  N yk yk  N yk 1 yk  N yk  2 .... yk  N 

p  Exk yk   Exk yk xk yk 2 .... xk yk  N 

T
xk yk 1
 Least Mean Square Algorithm
• LMS is computed iteratively by

• dk(n) =WnT(n)YN(n)

• e(n )= xk(n)-dk(n)

• WN(n+1) = WN(n) -  e*k(n) YN(n)

• 0 <  < 2 /  I

  I = Y N(n) YNT (n)

Summary of algorithms
 Diversity Techniques

• Requires no training overhead

• Can provides significant link
improvement with little added cost
• Diversity decisions are made by the
Rx, and are unknown to the Tx
 Diversity Techniques
• Diversity concept
– If one radio path undergoes a deep fade,
another independent path may have a strong
signal
– By having more than one path to select from,
both the instantaneous and average SNRs at
the receiver may be improved, often by as
much as 20 dB to 30 dB
– Diversity order
• How many independent copies
• How many links to bring down the system
Diversity Example
23
Overcoming Channel Impairments

Deep Fading Channel Coding

 Diversity Motivation
• Aim: Reduce effects of fast fading
– Concept:
• Multiple branches, independent fading
• Process branches to reduce fading probability
– If probability of a deep fade on one channel is p,
probability on N channel pN .
– e.g. 10% chance of losing contact for one channel
becomes 0.13=0.001=0.1% with 3 channels
• Requirements for Diversity
– Multiple branches
– Low correlation between branches
– Similar mean powers:
– Efficient combiner
 Different Diversity
• Spatial Diversity
– Multiple input multiple out system (MIMO)
– Beamforming, smart antenna
– Space time coding
– Horizontal and Vertical Combining
• Frequency diversity
– Frequency diversity transmits information on
more than one carrier frequency
– Frequencies separated by more than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel will not
experience the same fads
 Different Diversity

• Time diversity
– Time diversity repeatedly transmits
information at time spacings that
exceed the coherence time of the
channel
• Polarization diversity
• Multi-user diversity
 Time Diversity
• Retransmit with Time Separation
• Advantage: Need only one receiver
• Disadvantage: Wastes bandwidth,
adds delay
 Frequency Diversity
• Wideband Channel
• Simultaneous Transmission
• Wastes power and bandwidth
• Equalizers

Channel
Spectrum

Frequency
 Combining Techniques
• How to combine the multiple received copies
– Selection diversity
– Feedback diversity
– Maximal ratio combining
– Equal gain diversity
 Selection diversity
• The receiver branch having the highest
instantaneous SNR is connected to the
demodulator
• The antenna signals themselves could be
sampled and the best one sent to a single
demodulation
Selection Combining
 Derivation of Selection Diversity
• Microscopic diversity and Macroscopic diversity
– The former is used for small-scale fading
while the latter for large-scale fading
– Antenna diversity (or space diversity)
• Performance for M branch selection diversity

PrSNR  r   1  Pr 1 , .... ,  M  r 

 r/
 1  (1  e ) M

d 
PM (r)  PrSNR  r   (1  e  r/ )M 1 e  r/
dr Γ
M
r 1

 
k 1 k
 Performance

Graph of probability distributions of SNR= threshold for M branch

selection diversity. The term  represents the mean SNR on each branch
Effect of Varying Branch Mean Powers
 Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity

• The signals from all of the M branches

are weighted according to their signal
voltage to noise power ratios and then
summed
Selection diversity
– Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity


 

 Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity
M M
 2
N T  N  Gi
2
 M   Gi i rM  M

i 1 i 1 2 NT

1 N  N 2
 N N N
M  (  i2 ) 2  2 E   ni i*   (  i2 ) 2 PN   i2    i
2 i 1  i 1  i 1 i 1 i 1

r
(
M
r /  ) k 1
Pr{rM  r}   p( rM )drM  1  e  r /  
0 k 1 ( k  1)!

M 1  rM / 
rM
e
P ( rM )  M
 ( M  1)!
Effect of Non-zero correlation on
MRC
SNR for BPSK with MRC
24
 Feedback diversity
• The best of M signals, is received until it
falls below threshold and the scanning
process is again initiated
Antenna

Control

Short – Term
Average

Receiver
 Switched Combining
• Avoids multiple receivers
• Switch and stay strategy
• Must set appropriate threshold relative to mean level
• Performance always worse than selection combining
 Equal Gain Combining
• The branch weights are all set to unity but the
signals from each are co-phased to provide
equal gain combining diversity
• Make use of energy in all branches
Equal Gain Combining Performance

• Received signals: x1  s1  n1

x2  s 2  n2
• Combiner output:

 j1  j 2
y  x1e  x2 e
j1  j1 j 2  j 2
 ( sr1e  n1 )e  ( sr2 e  n2 )e
 j1  j 2
 s (r1  r2 )  n1e  n2 e
Equal Gain Combining Performance
• SNR:
( r1  r2 ) 2 2
c  
E  n1e  j1  n2 e  j 2 
2
2

 

( r1  r2 ) 2

4 PN

 1   2  2  1 2
c 
2
Comparison of Combining Techniques
 CDMA Example
R Receiver (a base station)

Data=1011… Data=0010…

A B
Transmitter (a mobile) Transmitter
Codeword=010011 Codeword=101010
Data transmitted from A and B is multiplexed using
CDMA and codeword's.
The Receiver de-multiplexes the data using
dispreading.
 CDMA Example – transmission from two
sources
A Data
1 0 1 1

A 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Codeword

Data  Code 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
A Signal

B Data 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
B
Codeword
Data  Code 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
B Signal
Transmitted
A+B
Signal
 CDMA Example – recovering signal A at the receiver

A+B
Signal
received
A
Codeword
at
receiver
(A  B)  Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output 0 1 0
0
Take the inverse of this to obtain A
 CDMA Example – recovering signal B at the receiver

A+B
Signal
received
B
Codeword
at
receiver
(A  B)  Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output 1 1 0 1

Take the inverse of this to obtain B

 CDMA Example – using wrong codeword at the
receiver
A+B
Signal
received

Wrong
Codeword
Used at
receiver

Integrator
Output

Comparator X 0 1 1
Output Noise

Wrong codeword will not be able to decode the original data!

 RAKE Receiver
Z m2
M m  M
Z  m Z m  m
Z 2
m 1
m 1

An M-branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator

detects a time shifted version of the original CDMA transmission, and each
finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion of the signal which is delayed by at
least one chip in time from the other finger.