Chapter 3

Denotation vs. reference

Sense vs. reference
Meaning change
Meaning transference

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 Denotation and Reference
• Denotation is the ability of • Reference is the
a word to identify all relationship that holds
between a word or
those things or objects expression and the
that are correctly covered objects it refers to (called
by it. referent).
• The denotation of a word • Reference is variable and
or expression is invariant utterance-dependent.
• By means of reference, a
and utterance-
speaker wants to indicate
independent. a particular thing in a
particular situation, not
things in general.
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The same expression can refer to different references. 3
 Sense - explanation
• The meaning of a word/a lexeme is more than
denotation and connotation
• Lexemes do not merely have meaning; they
contribute meaning to the utterances in which
they occur.
• What meaning they contribute depends on what
other lexemes they are associated with in these
sentences.

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 Sense - definition
• The meaning that a lexeme has because of
relationships with other lexemes is the sense of
that lexeme.
• Relationships are shown in:
i. The way word meanings vary with context
• A window broke: became broken
• Tom broke a window: caused to be broken
• Happy child: who enjoys happiness
• Happy accident: that produces happiness
• Happy story: containing a happy event(s)
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 Sense - definition
ii. Its relationship to other lexemes of the
language. Each lexeme is linked in some
way to numerous other lexemes of the
language.
a. syntagmatic relation:
e.g. arbitrary judge
happy child
sit chair
read book/newspaper
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 Sense - definition
b. Paradigmatic relation: a relation of choice. We
choose from among a number of possible words
that can fill the same blank: the words may be
similar in meaning or have little in common but each
is different from the others:

book cautious read

newspaper arbitrary write

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 Sense - definition
• From specific associations with specific things,
actions and characteristics (reference)
what associations are favourable and which are
not we acquire an implicit knowledge of
how lexemes are associated with other lexemes
(sense relations)

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 Notes
• Every expression that has meaning has sense,
but not every expression has reference.
• The reference of an expression vary according
to the circumstances (time, place, etc.) in which
the expression is used, or the topic of the
conversation in which the expression is used.
• Two different expressions can have the same
referent.

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10
 Sense vs. reference
• My cat is cute
• My baby is cute

Sense:…………………
Reference:…………….

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The change and development of
meaning

1. Definition of meaning change

2. Causes of semantic change

3. Nature of semantic change

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 Definition of meaning change
(semantic change)
• New meanings of the words appear

• Bead: prayer  prayer beads  beads

• Immoral: not customary  unethical

• Old meanings drop out of the language or co-exist with
the new ones

• Silly: happy, prosperous  foolish

• Wench: girls  wanton (easy-virtue) woman

 prostitutes 13
 Causes of semantic change
• Extra linguistic causes (connected with the
development of society, changes in social,
political, economic, cultural life, in science and
technology)
• Linguistic causes (connected with the system of
language)
• Psychological reasons (taboos, euphemism)

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 Extra linguistic causes
• Objects are changed or our concepts are changed
e.g: Car = A four-wheeled wagon
 Automobile railway carriage
• The words used by particular group of people pass
into general usage or vice versa (generalization)
e.g: Lure = Apparatus used by falconers to recall their
hawks
 Thing that attracts and invites
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 Linguistic changes
• Ellipsis or contraction of a phrase
e.g: To propose marriage = To propose
• Discrimination of synonyms
e.g: Deer = animal beast
 a kind of animal
• Attraction of synonyms
e.g: Catch = grasp, get
Catch = understand
 Grasp/ Get = Understand
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 Psychological reasons

• Avoidance of expressing explicitly problematic

concepts such as death, excretion, or sex
(Pseudo-euphemisms)
e.g: Toilet = Restroom

To go to the W.C = To answer the call of the

nature

Die = Pass away

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 Nature of semantic change

• Change of the denotation:

• Widening/extended

• Narrowing

• Change of the connotation

• Degradation

• Elevation

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 Denotational meaning change
• Meaning extended: the covers/denotes more
objects/items
- The meaning is widened covering more objects
e.g: Ready = Prepared for a ride
 Prepared for everything
- The meaning is generalized
e.g: Camp = The place where the troops are lodged in
tents
 Temporary quarters
To muscle in = To encroach upon the racket of other
gangsters
 To encroach/to make one’s way by force
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 Denotational meaning change

• Meaning narrowed: The meaning is more

specialized, less general or less inclusive
than its historically earlier form

e.g: Meat = any food

 animal flesh

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 Connotational meaning change
• Degradation of meaning (deterioration): more
negative or less favorable
e.g: Villain = Labourer attached to a farm
 A wicked schemer
• Elevation of meaning: the meaning of a word
becomes more positive or favorable
e.g: Minister = A servant, an attendant
 Head of a state department
Rake off = A bribe, a share in illicit profit
 A share of profit
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 Types of transference
of meaning

METAPHOR METONYMY
OTHER TYPES

HYPERBOLE LITOTES IRONY EUPHEMISMS

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 Metaphor

• Definition

• Metaphor versus simile

• Conceptual metaphor

• Basis of the transference

• Classification
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 Definition
• Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one
object to another based on similarities between
these two.

• In other words, we call one object by the name of

another because we compare these objects and find
some common features between them.

 Eg: The Internet is an information superhighway

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Definition in the view of cognitive linguistics
Metaphor is a conceptual projection whereby one
experiential domain (target) is partially understood in
terms of another experiential domain (source) included
in the same common experiential domain (similarity).

SOURCE TARGET
DOMAIN DOMAIN

SIMILARITY 25
 Example

• That woman is a witch.

TARGET DOMAIN projected SOURCE DOMAIN

Witch – having magic powers
That woman – ugly, cruel
and doing evil things

SIMILARITY
UNPLEASANT, CRUEL
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 Metaphor vs. Simile
Criteria METAPHOR SIMILE

Feature Implicit comparison Explicit comparison

Form Direct: having no Indirect: having

elements of elements of
comparison comparison (like; as)

Example A wire is a road for A good book is like a

electrons. good meal.

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 Conceptual metaphor
• Definition

Conceptual metaphor is an underlying identification of an

abstract concept with a more basic or concrete concept
(or a mapping between a concrete domain and an
abstract domain).

• Feature

Conceptual metaphors imply the coherence between

whole sets of ordinary language expressions
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 Conceptual metaphor
Some everyday English expressions describing LOVE
• Our love has hit a dead - end street.
• We may have to go our separate ways.
• The relationship isn’t going anywhere.
• The marriage is on the rocks.
• Our relationship is off the track.

LOVE is conceptualised as a JOURNEY

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 Conceptual metaphor
Mapping form:
TARGET- DOMAIN and SOURCE - DOMAIN.
e.g: The Love-is-a-Journey mapping
• The lovers correspond to travellers.

• The love relationship corresponds to the vehicle.

• The lovers’ common goals correspond to their

common destinations on the journey.
• Difficulties in the relationship correspond to
impediments to travel.
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 Basis of transference

• Shape: teeth of the • Function: the key to

saw the mystery

• Position: foot of the • Colour: rose, orange

mountain • Size: midget,
• Movement: She elephantine
wormed her way • Characteristics:
through the crowd. Othello, snake, bear 31
 Classification of metaphor

• Living metaphor

• Faded metaphor

• Dead metaphor

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 Living metaphor

• Living metaphor is a word used in

unusual, novel meaning and metaphor
is felt as such.

• Eg: She lent wings to his imagination.

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 Faded metaphor

• Faded metaphor is the one which has

lost its freshness because of long use
and became habitual.

• Eg: Good qualifications aren’t always

the key to success.
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 Dead metaphor

• Dead metaphor is the word which has

lost its metaphoric meaning and are
used only figuratively.

• Eg: I’m open to criticism.

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 Notes
• It’s difficult to clearly distinguish living,
faded and dead metaphor.
• Culture
• Personal experience
• There is a theory that all our words are
dead metaphors.

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 Metonymy

• Definition

• Basis of transference

• Cases of metonymy

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 Definition
• Metonymy is the substitution of one word for
another with which it is associated.

• In other words, instead of the name of one

object or notion, we use the name of another
because these objects are associated and
closely related.
• Eg: The White House announced a press conference for four
o'clock Sunday. 38
 Metonymy vs. Metaphor

• Metaphor is based on similarity.

Eg: Her voice were music to his ears.

• Metonymy is based on contiguity.

Eg: The Crown had absolute power in

the Middle Ages.

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 Notes

• Metonym is a kind of “local” word

perceived in a system of beliefs that is
available only to a sub-section of the
community.

• Eg: The white jersey was very nice.

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 Basis of the transference
Material, causal or conceptual relation

• Place - for - institution

Eg: The White Hall objected to the plan.

• Thing - for - perception

Eg: There goes my knee. (the pain in my

knee)

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 Basis of the transference
Material, causal or conceptual relation
• Object - for - possessor

Eg: The Crown in fact has little power.

• Part - for - whole

Eg: We don’t employ long hairs.

• Place - for - event

Eg: Waterloo marked the end of Napoleon’s life

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 Cases of metonymy
• Name of container instead of the thing contained:
to drink a glass
• Parts of human body as symbols: kind heart,
clever head
• The concrete in stead of the abstract: from the
cradle to the grave
• Materials instead of the things made of the
materials: glass, iron, silver, gold, bronze

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 Cases of metonymy
• Name of the author instead of his works:
Picasso, Dickens,
• Part for the whole: living in the same roof,
wearing a fox; He’s always running after the
skirt.
• Names of places and names of products made
there: china, champagne, havana, cardigan
• Names of inventors and names of inventions:
sandwich, volt, ampere, diesel, watt.
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 Cases of metonymy

• Spatial relation: chair, table (people sitting

at the table)

• Causal relation: fear (M.E); OE: fer (danger)

• Functional relation: to pen

• Geographical relation: china, holland

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 Hyperpole (Cường điệu)
• Definition: Hyperbole is an exaggerated
statement not meant to be understood
literally, but with powerful effect.

• Eg: It was a nightmare to meet him again.

I had to wait an eternity for the file to

download.
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 Litotes (Nói giảm)
• Definition: Litotes is an understatement
expressing something in the affirmative by
the negative of its contrary.

• He was no coward to tell her the truth.

• Not bad = very good

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 Irony

• Definition: Irony expresses meaning by words of

the opposite sense.

• Intonation plays an essential role in getting the

message across.

Eg: Watching it rain, he said, "Lovely day for a

picnic!"

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 Euphemism (uyển ngữ)
• Definition: Euphemism is the use of a
milder expression for something
unpleasant.

Eg: “restroom” or “lavatory” instead of “toilet”

“pass away” instead of “die”

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 Exercises
What type of meaning transference
do the following sentences belong
to?

1. The cat's eyes were jewels,

gleaming out of the darkness.

2. Like a writhing snake, the broken

electrical wires hissed and twitched
in the damp grass.
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 Exercises
• What type of meaning transference do the
following sentences belong to?
3. Waves high as mountains broke over the reef.

4. He drank 20 glasses.

5. His fear was a prison, stronger than any more

visible barricade.

6. ‘England is famous for its food,’ she told her

husband after the dinner at her English
colleague's house. 51
 Exercises
• The verb bake is typically followed by a noun
that refers to some item of food. Each verb
below is fairly limited as to the kind of referring
expression that can occur as object. Name one
or two nouns that can occur with each verb:
• Bounce, brandish, brew, coil, flash.

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 Exercises
• What lexeme meanings depend on what it
occurs with and also what it contrasts with. What
colour does red contrast with in these
collocations?
- A red apple
- Red hair
- A red traffic light
- Red wine
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