INTRODUCTION AND

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
 Textbook
 Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice: K.G. S
tagg
 Under ground excavation in rock: Hoek and Br
own
 Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice: Cambr
idge University
 Introduction to Rock Mechanics: R.E. Goodman
Course Content
Introduction:
Rock Mechanics and its relations
hip with soil mechanics and engi
neering geology, application of r
ock mechanics to civil engineeri
ng problems.
Classification of Rocks
Lithological classification, engineering classifica
tion of rocks, classification based on wave v
elocity ratio, R.Q.D. Classification of rock ma
sses i.e. RMR and Q systems.
Rock Properties
Laboratory test, compression, tensile, void index
, permeability and shear, effects of size of spe
cimen, rate of testing, confining pressure etc.
Stress strain curves of typical rocks, strength
of intact and fissured rocks, effects of anisotr
opy, saturation and temperature effects, shea
r strength of jointed rock mass.
Field Tests
Uniaxial tests in tunnels and open excavations, s
hear test, pressures tunnel tests etc.
Stability of Rock Slopes
Mode of failure of rock slopes, plane wedge analysis,
3D‐
wedge analysis circular mode of failure, back ana
lysis of slopes, stability charts, types and design
of rock bolts.
Determination of Insitu Stresses
Stresses in rock, methods of determining in situ stresses i
.e hydraulic fracturing, flat jack test and over coring.
Design of Tunnel
Rock pressure theories, ground reaction curve, rock supp
ort interaction analysis empirical and semi empirical m
ethods of analysis, simple method of tunnel, design, ty
pes and design of tunnel lining.
Foundation on Rocks
Stress distribution in foundation, methods of determinatio
n of bearing capacity of rocks, improvement of rock pr
operties, pressure grouting for tunnels and dams, dent
al concreting, shear zone treatment.
What is Soil Mechanics?
Soil mechanics is a discipline that applies principles of engineering mechanics,
e.g. kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and mechanics of material, to
predict the mechanical behavior of soils. It is the basis for solving many
engineering problems in civil engineering.

Some of the basic theories of soil mechanics are the

1. Basic description and classification of soil

2. Effective stress
3. Shear strength
4. Consolidation
5. Lateral earth pressure
6. Bearing capacity
7. Slope stability
8. Permeability

Foundations, embankments, retaining walls, earth works and underground

openings are all designed in part with theories from soil mechanics.
What is Engineering Geology?
Engineering Geology is the application of the geologic
sciences to engineering practice for the purpose of
assuring that the geologic factors affecting the
location, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of engineering works are recognized and
adequately provided for.
Engineering geologists investigate and provide
geologic and geotechnical recommendations, analysis,
and design associated with human development. The
realm of the engineering geologist is essentially in the
area of earth-structure interactions, or investigation
of how the earth or earth processes impact human
made structures and human activities.
Engineering geologic studies may be performed during the planning, environmental impact analysis, civil or
structural engineering design, value engineering and construction phases of public and private works projects,
and during post-construction and forensic phases of projects.

Works completed by engineering geologists include

1. Geologic hazards
2. Geotechnical
3. Material properties
4. Landslide and slope stability
5. Erosion
6. Flooding
7. Dewatering
8. Seismic investigations

The principal objective of the engineering geologist is the protection of life and property against damage caused by
geologic conditions.

Engineering geologic practice is also closely related to the practice of geological engineering, geotechnical
engineering, soil engineering, environmental geology and economic geology. If there is a difference in the
content of the disciplines described, it mainly lies in the training or experience of the practitioner.
What is Rock Mechanics?
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and
applied science of the mechanical
behaviour of rock and rock masses; it
is that branch of mechanics
concerned with the response of rock
and rock masses to the force fields of
their physical environment.
Rock mechanics itself forms part of the broader subject of geomechanics which is concerned with the mechanical
responses of all geological materials, including soils. Rock mechanics, as applied in

1. Mining
2. Petroleum
3. Civil engineering practice

is concerned with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of the rock structures
generated by mining, drilling, reservoir production, or civil construction activities such as

4. 1.Tunnels
5. 2. Mining shafts
6. 3. Underground excavations
7. 4. Open pit mines
8. 5. Oil and Gas Wells
9. 6. Road cuts
10. 7. Waste repositories, and other structures built in or of rock.

It also includes the design of reinforcement systems such as rock bolting patterns.
Need of Rock Mechanics
Every developmental activity particularly of water
resources call for construction of a large number of
capital intensive massive structures like
1. Dams (Impose additional stresses on these materials)
2. Power houses and under ground openings (Under
ground openings cause stress changes)
3. Other construction activities (modify the insitu
conditions significantly)
Safe and economic design and construction of such
structures cannot be conceived without a close
knowledge of the behaviour of the geological
materials like rock and its products which support and
closely interact with such structures for their safety.
Presence of
1. Active faults
2. Joints
3. Cracks
make the situation more complex particularly for hydraulic
structures.
Under such circumstances it is very much essential to have
full understanding of the
4. Natural forces
5. Characterisation of the rockmass
6. Behaviour of rockmass
in the natural environment under the influence of stresses
and deformation.
In this context rock mechanics subject deals more rationally
with the problems on the behaviour of rock under the
force field of its own environment using theoretical and
experimental approaches.
Application of Rock Mechanics
Large Dams: The most challenging surface
structures with respect to rock mechanics is
large dam that impose high stresses on
rock foundations. In such a case the rock
supporting the dam should have no fault
zone and should be able to take stresses
due to construction of the dam. At the
same time, the rock strata should be such
that upstream water may not seep through
the foundation bed. For these details and
proper design, a knowledge of rock
mechanics is essential.
Blasting: For rock clean up work, some times
blasting has to be engineered to preserve
the integrity of the remaining rock and to
limit the vibrations of neighbouring
structures to acceptable levels. An aspect
of engineering for tall buildings that involve
rock mechanics is to control of blasting so
that the vibrations do not damage
neighbouring structures or irritate local
residents.
Design of cut slopes: Cut slopes for highways,
railways, canals may involve testing and
analysis of the system of discontinuities.
Considerable cost savings are possible if
the orientation of the right of way can be
adjusted based on the rock mechanics
studies. The decision to place portions of
such routes underground is partly
determined by judgements about the rock
conditions and relative costs of open cuts
and tunnels.
Under ground excavations:
Underground excavations call upon
the discipline of rock mechanics in
many ways. The design of cutters and
drills can be tailored to the rock
conditions which are determined by
suitable laboratory tests. The rock
condition and state of stress is
fundamentally important in the
design of the tunnels.
Power Houses: More and more hydro
electric power houses are now being
constructed under ground. The
stability of such large under ground
chambers depends upon the state of
stress and the pattern and properties
of discontinuities. The lay out and
orientation of these openings depends
almost entirely upon rock mechanics
and geological conditions.
Inherent Complexities in Rocks
1. Rock fracture
─ under compressive stresses
2. Size effects
─ response of rock to loading affected by the
size of the loaded volume” (joints & fractures)
3. Tensile strength
─ is low (similar to concrete); HOWEVER a rock
mass can have even less tensile strength
4. Groundwater effects
─ water in joints: if under pressure, reduces
normal stress (less resistance along joints)
─ water in permeable rocks (e.g. sandstone)
→ soil like response
─ softening of clay seams & argillaceous rocks
(e.g. shales)
5. Weathering
─ chemical/physical alteration, reduction of
engineering properties
─ limestone caverns, sinkholes: ”Karst”
─ basic rocks with olivine (e.g. basalt) and
pyroxene minerals are reduced to
montmorillonite by hydrolysis
Discontinuities
1) Bedding planes
2) Folds
 tension joints at the crest of a fold
(strike, dip & shear joints)
 folding may cause shear failure along
bedding planes
(axial plane or fracture cleavage)
Folding
3) Faults
 shear displacement zones - sliding

Faults may contain

 Fault gouge (clay) – weak
 Fault breccia (re-cemented rock) – weak
 Rock flour – weak
 Angular fragments – may be strong
Defects
Defects
4) Shear zones
 bands of materials - local shear failure
5) Dykes
 igneous intrusions (near vertical)
 weathered dykes, e.g. dolerite weathers to
montmorillonite
 unweathered dykes attract high stresses
6) Joints
 breaks with no visible displacement
Joint Patterns

sedimentary rocks usually contain 2

sets of joints, orthogonal to each
other and the bedding plane
JOINTS
1) Open
Filled
Healed (or closed)
2) Stepped
Undulating
Planar
2B) each of the above can be Rough
Smooth

Slickensided
JOINT CLASSES

I Stepped Rough
II Smooth
II Slickensided
IV Undulating Rough
V Smooth
VI Slickensided
VII Planar Rough
VIII Smooth
IX Slickensided
Order of Description of Rocks

rock name
ROCK MATERIAL
grain size
COMPOSITION
texture and fabric
colour

e.g. Basalt, fine, massive, vesicular, dark

grey to black
ROCK MATERIAL strength
CONDITION
weathering

e.g. VL strength, XW
 ROCK MASS structure
PROPERTIES defects (much information required)
weathering of joints

Structure:
sedimentary rocks – bedded, laminated
metamorphic – foliated, banded, cleaved
igneous rocks – massive, flow banded
DEFECTS – information needed
 tightness
 cementation or infill
 smoothness or irregularity of surfaces
 class of joint
 water in joints
 joint orientation
 joint spacing
 Rock Classification

Classification is the arrangement of things in classes

according to the characteristics they have in common.
The need for an appropriate classification of rocks has
long been recognised as it serves as an effective
communication between the engineer and the geologist
or between the engineer and the contractor. By nature,
rocks are heterogeneous due to the presence of
discontinuities such as macro and micro fissures,
bedding plane, joints and faults.
These discontinuities introduce the concept of rock mass. An
understanding of the behaviour of rock masses is of paramount
importance as many developmental works such as tunnels, dams and
other under ground storage tanks and excavation in mines are being
constructed in and on rockmasses. Several classification system to
describe rockmasses have been proposed but still prediction of
rockmass behaviour, support pressure and tunnel closure has
remained one of the most difficult problems in rock mechanics
despite the fact that a lot of technological advancements have been
made in the recent years.

It is therefore necessary to evolve an easy and yet dependable

classification system which is applicable to underground openings and
tunnels particularly suited to highly complex geological conditions as
prevailing in Himalayan Region.
Aims of Rock Classification
1. To classify a particular rock mass into
groups of similar behaviour
2. To provide a basis for understanding
the characteristics of each group
3. To yield quantitative data for
engineering designs
4. To provide a common basis for
communication
Requirements of Good Classification
System
1. It should be simple, easily remembered and
understandable
2. Each term should be clear and the terminology used
should be widely accepted by engineers and
geologists
3. As many as significant properties of the rock masses
should be taken into considerations
4. It should be based on measurable parameters which
can be obtained by relevant quick tests on samples
and cheaply in the field
5. It should be based on rating system that can weigh
the relative importance of the classification
parameters
6. It should be functional by providing quantitative data
for design of rock support
Rock Classification Systems
A list of major classification systems currently in use are
as follows
1. Lithological classification
2. Engineering classification
3. Terzaghi rock load classification
4. Lauffer-Pacher Classification
5. Deere’s Rock Quality Designation
6. Rock Structure Rating
7. Geomechanics Classification System
8. NGI Classification System
9. Geological Strength Index
Lithological Classification
Lithology of rock is the study of its physical
character. It includes the study of
1. Mineralogical composition
2. Texture
3. Colour
4. Physical Appearance
The above parameters help in the selection of
a particular rock for engineering purpose.
Generally engineers are concerned with the strength properties
of rock material. Hence if an engineer is conversant with the
lithological classification of rocks, he can select the rock for
his purpose. To ascertain the engineering properties of
rocks it is necessary to know the following rock properties
which can be ascertained by visual examination to make a
preliminary inference about the suitability of a particular
rock for a particular purpose. In order to describe the rock
fully for a particular engineering purpose, it is necessary to
describe the following properties.
1. Texture
2. Structure
3. Composition
4. Colour
5. Grain size
Texture
Rock materials may be of any of the following
textural group.
Crystalline: Crystalline rock materials are
composed of visible interlocking crystal
grains. When scratched by the blade of a
pen knife, particles do not come out of the
rock mass. If particles come out due to
scratching, the rock will not be taken in
crystalline group.
Indurated: Indurated rock materials are
those in which interlocking crystals
and crystal grains are not visible by
naked eye. Grains are fine but the
rock is strong as particles do not
come out of the rock mass when
scratched by the edge of a knife.
Crystalline-Indurated: These rock
materials fall between crystalline and
indurated rock materials. Its
individual crystal grains or crystal
aggregates are finer than crystalline
structure but coarser than indurated.
Rocks of this type are hard because
the grains do not come out when
scratched by the edge of a knife.
Compact: In compact rock materials,
the particles are held together purely
by tightness for grain packing. Grains
are finer. Particles or powder come
out of the rock mass when scratched
by the edge of a knife.
Structure
It refers to placing of various textures
within the rock material. The various
types of structures are as follow.
Homogeneous: If the grains and
crystals are having random
orientation the structure will be called
homogenous. By visual examinations
only the homogenous structures in a
rock mass can be ascertained.
Lineated: If the material particles are
having a proffered orientation in a
particular linear direction/directions
the structure will be known as
lineated.
Intact-foliated: When the minerals in the rock
mass are having a proffered orientation of
a planer nature.
Fracture-foliated: When the planer struture is
having closed or incipient fracture such as
bedding planes or cleavage planes.
Generally lineated structure pose problems
because properties of the rock mass is not
the same in all directions in such cases.
Composition
Presence of calcite is of prime
importance when considering
mechanical and physical
characteristics of rock mass. The
important sub-divisions are
Noncalcareous: Rock materials are
those in which calcium carbonate is
absent
Part-calcareous: The rock contains
mainly non-calcareous materials. The
calcareous material is present as a
band between the grains.
Calcareous: Rock materials which are
mainly composed of calcite.
Colour
If the rock is of basic nature, it will be of
dark colour where as acidic rocks are
of light colour. Light coloured rocks
are generally feldspathic where as
dark coloured rocks are generally
contain ferromagnesium minerals.
Calcareous rocks which contain
impure materials are dark in colour
where as pure calcareous rocks are
light.
Grain size
Sometimes classification of rocks is done on
the basis of their grain sizes. In such cases
origin or type of rock is not so important.
Coarse grained: When the particles are larger
than 2 mm in diameter
Medium grained: When particles size lies
between 2 mm and 0.1 mm.
Fine grained: Particles of less than 0.1 mm
size and invisible to the naked eye.
 Engineering Classification

The basis for engineering classification of rocks is UCS and modulus of

elasticity. Based on UCS the rock is classified as class A, B, C, D and E. This
classification system is valid for intact rocks only.
Class Description UCS (kg/cm2)

A Very high strength >2250

B High strength 1125-2250

C Medium strength 562.5-1125

D Low strength 281.25-562.5

E Very low strength <281.25

The UCS value is based on the results of
the specimen having L/d ratio of 2.
Engineering classification of intact rocks
on the basis of modulus ratio
MR = Et50/sult
Et50 = Tangent modulus at 50 % ultimate
compressive strength of rock
sult = UCS
Engineering classification of intact rocks
on the basis of modulus ratio

Class Description Modulus ratio

H High >500
M Average 200-500
L Low <200

On the basis of the above two tables, engineering

classification is done like AM, BH, CM (CM means
medium strength and average modulus ratio)
 Main Features of Engineering Rock
Mass Classification Schemes
• Developed for estimation of tunnel support
• Used at project feasibility and preliminary design stages
• Simple check lists or detailed schemes
• Used to develop a picture of the rock mass and its
variability
• Used to provide initial empirical estimates of tunnel
support requirements
• Are practical engineering tools which force the user to
examine the properties of the rock mass
• Do not replace detailed design methods
• Project specific
Terzaghi’s Rock Mass Classification (1946)

Terzaghi (1946) rock load classification is the first known rational system of rock
classification for design of tunnel supports. The system for assessing the rock loads
under different types of rock conditions had been widely used till mid seventies for
design of supporting system in tunnels and is relevant even today to a limited
extent, for design of cavities using steel supports. Terzaghi’s classification which is
quantitative indirect method of assessing the support requirement relates rock
loads to rock conditions. The Terzaghi rock load classification has proved very
successful for tunnelling with steel supports but is not appropriate for tunnels built
according to the modern tunnelling philosophy where displacements are controlled
and where the rock is activated to self support the field stresses.
During construction of a tunnel, some
relaxation of the rockmass will
occur above and on the sides of the
tunnel. The loosened rock with in
the area acdb will tend to move in
towards the tunnel. This movement
will be resisted by friction forces
along the lateral boundaries ac and
bd and these friction forces transfer
the major portion of the over
burden weight W onto the material
on either side of the tunnel. The
roof and sides of the tunnel are
required only to support the
balance which is equivalent to a
height HP. The width B, of the zone
of rock in which movement occurs
will depend upon the characteristics
of the rockmass and upon the
tunnel dimensions Ht and B.
 Rock Mass Descriptions
Terzaghi (1946)

– Intact
– Stratified
– Moderately jointed
– Blocky and Seamy
– Crushed
– Squeezing
– Swelling
Intact rock contains neither joints nor hair cracks.
Hence, if it breaks, it breaks across sound rock. On
account of the injury to the rock due to blasting,
spalls may drop off the roof several hours or days
after blasting. This is known as a spalling condition.
Hard, intact rock may also be encountered in the
popping condition involving the spontaneous and
violent detachment of rock slabs from the sides or
roof.
Stratified rock consists of individual strata with little or no
resistance against separation along the boundaries between
the strata. The strata may or may not be weakened by
transverse joints. In such rock the spalling condition is quite
common.
Moderately jointed rock contains joints and hair cracks, but the
blocks between joints are locally grown together or so
intimately interlocked that vertical walls do not require
lateral support. In rocks of this type, both spalling and
popping conditions may be encountered.
Blocky and seamy rock consists of chemically intact or
almost intact rock fragments which are entirely
separated from each other and imperfectly
interlocked. In such rock, vertical walls may require
lateral support.
Crushed but chemically intact rock has the character of
crusher run. If most or all of the fragments are as
small as fine sand grains and no recementation has
taken place, crushed rock below the water table
exhibits the properties of a water-bearing sand.
Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without
perceptible volume increase. A prerequisite for
squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and sub-
microscopic particles of micaceous minerals or clay
minerals with a low swelling capacity.
Swelling rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on
account of expansion. The capacity to swell seems to
be limited to those rocks that contain clay minerals
such as montmorillonite, with a high swelling
capacity.
Rock Load in Tunnel within Various Rock
Classes
Modified Terzaghi Theory for Tunnel and
Cavern
Terzaghi classification Singh 1995 classification Remarks
Lauffer-Pacher Classification
Tunnel Span: It is the width of the tunnel or
the distance from the face to the support if
this is less than the tunnel width.
Standup time: It is the period of time that a
tunnel will stand unsupported after
excavation and is affected by factors like
orientation of tunnel axis, shape of cross
section, excavation method and support
method.
The main significance of the Lauffer-Pacher classification is that
an increase in tunnel span leads to a major reduction in the
stand up time. This means that while a tunnel having a
small span may be successfully constructed full face in fair
rock conditions, a large span opening in the same rock
conditions may prove highly problematic to support in terms
of stand up time. According to this classification, the rocks
are classified as moderately jointed rock, Blocky and seamy
rock, crushed but chemically intact rock, squeezing rock,
swelling rock. But the problem with this system is that only
large cross section tunnel can be constructed in such rock
conditions. As in this system, the rockmass classes are
developed on the basis of experience, the out put will be in
terms of stand up time and span. In short this classification
system introduced the concept of standup time and span as
relevant parameters in determining the type and amount of
tunnel support and has also influenced the development of
more recent rockmass classification systems.
 Rock Quality Designation Index (RQD)
(Deere et al. 1967)

1. Aim : to provide a quantitative estimate of rock

mass quality from drill logs
2. Equal to the percentage of intact core pieces longer
than 100mm in the total length of core
3. Directionally dependant parameter
4. Intended to indicate rock mass quality in-situ
5. Used as a component in the RMR and Q systems
Direct Method of Calculation of RQD
 Indirect Method of Calculation of RQD

• Palmstrom (1982) RQD  115  3.3 J v

• Priesta i Hudsona (1976) RQD  1001  0.1 e 0.1
l - number of joints per unit length
Jv = Volumetric Joint Count
 Estatic 2
 1 /( 6.66  5.66(Vs / Vt )
Edynamic

where Edynamic  Vs/

and   /g
Multi parameter Rock Mass Classification
Schemes
• Rock Mass Structure Rating (RSR)
• Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
• Rock Tunnelling Quality Index (Q)
• Geological Strength Index (GSI)
 Rock Mass Structure Rating (RSR) (1972)

• Introduced the concept of rating components to arrive at

a numerical value
• Demonstrates the logic in a quasi-quantitative rock mass
classification
• Has limitations as based on small tunnels supported by
steel sets only
• RSR = A + B + C
 Rock Structure Rating
Parameter A: General area geology

Considers (a) rock type origin

(b) rock ‘hardness’
(c) geotechnical structure
 Rock Structure Rating
Parameter B: Geometry : Effect of discontinuity pattern

Considers (a) joint spacing

(b) joint orientation (strike and dip)
(c) direction of tunnel drive
 Rock Structure Rating
Parameter C: Groundwater, joint condition

Considers (a) overall rock mass quality (on the basis of A + B)

(b) joint condition
(c) water inflow
RSR support estimates for a 7.3m diameter
circular tunnel
Examples
RSR = 62
2” shotcrete
1” rockbolts @
5ft centres

RSR = 30
5” shotcrete
1” rockbolts @
2.5ft centres
OR 8WF31 steel
sets @ 3ft centres

(After Wickham et al. 1972)

Based on the study of 53 projects, the
following empirical relationship has been
developed between RSR and the predicted
rock load.

Rock Load  0.26.( B  H ).

 8800
 80

 ( RSR  30) 
where B and H is in Metres
 Geomechanics Classification or
Rock Mass Rating System (RMR) (Bieniawski 1976)

Based upon
• uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
• rock quality designation (RQD)
• spacing of discontinuities
• condition of discontinuities
• groundwater conditions
• orientation of discontinuities
 Rock Mass Rating System

• Rock mass divided into structural regions

• Each region is classified separately
• Boundaries can be rock type or structural, eg: fault
• Can be sub divided based on significant changes, eg:
discontinuity spacing
Rock Mass Rating System
 Rock Mass Rating System

BUT: 1976 to 1989 Bieniawski

• System refined by greater data
• Ratings for parameters changed
• Adapted by other workers for different situations
• PROJECT SPECIFIC SYSTEMS
Development of Rock Mass Rating System
Rock Mass Rating System

(After Bieniawski 1989)

 Rock Mass Rating System

Rating Class Description Bearing Capacity

(t/m2)

81-100 I Very Good Rock 600-440

61-80 II Good Rock 440-250

41-60 III Fair Rock 250-145

21-40 IV Poor Rock 145-55

Less than 21 V Very Poor Rock 55-45

Rock Mass Rating System
 Guidelines for excavation and support of 10m
span rock tunnels in accordance with the RMR system

(After Bieniawski 1989)

Prediction of in-situ deformation modulus Em
from rock mass classifications
 Rock Mass Rating System
E rm
• Nicholson & Bieniawski (1990)  0.0028 RMR 2  0.9e ( RMR / 22.82 )
Es

• Bieniawski (1978) and Serafim & Pereira (1983)

E m  2 RMR  100 for RMR  50 (GPa)

E m  10 ( RMR 10 ) / 40 for RMR  50 (GPa)
• Hoek and Brown (1997)

Rc
Em   10 ( RMR 10 ) / 40
10
• Verman (1993
E m  0.3H   10 ( RMR  20 ) / 38 (GPa)
• H – depth, a = 0.16-0.3 (decreases with rock strength)
Prediction of in-situ deformation modulus E m from rock mass classifications
Estimates of support capacity for tunnels
of different sizes
 Rock Mass Rating System
100  RMR
Support pressure - Unal (1983) pv    s
100
s - tunnel width
RMR 100 RMR 100
Hoek (1994): m  mi e 28
se 9

mi - constant – from 4 (weak shales) to 32 (granite).

Rcrm  sRc Rrrm 

Rc
2

m  m2  4 s 
Aydan & Kawamoto (2000) Rcrm  0.0016 RMR 2.5

Rc RMR  15
Kalamaras & Bieniawski (1995) Rcrm 
2 85
 Rock Mass Rating System
RMR
Aydan & Kawamoto (2000) Rcrm  Rc
RMR  6100  RMR 
Let’s assume: RMR  60 Rc  80 MPa

Rc  8.67 MPa
Hoek:
Aydan: Rc  44.62 MPa

Kalamaras & Bieniawski: Rc  21.18 MPa

Aydan & Kawamoto (2000)  rm  22  0.05 RMR

Rcrm 1  sin  rm
crm 
2 cos  rm
 Rock Tunnelling Quality Index Q – Barton, Lien, Lunde

• Based on case histories in Scandinavia

• Numerical values on a log scale
• Range 0.001 to 1000
‘Q’ Classification System

(After Barton et al. 1974)

 ‘Q’ Classification System

• represents the structure of the rockmass

• crude measure of block or particle size

(After Barton et al. 1974)

 ‘Q’ Classification System

• represents roughness and frictional

characteristics of joint walls or infill material

(After Barton et al. 1974)

 ‘Q’ Classification System

• consists of two stress parameters

• SRF can be regarded as a total stress parameter
measure of
– loosening load as excavated through shear zones
– rock stress in competent rock
– squeezing loads in plastic incompetent rock
• JW is a measure of water pressure
(After Barton et al. 1974)
Classification of individual parameters used in
the Tunnelling Quality Index Q
Classification of individual parameters used in
the Tunnelling Quality Index Q (cont’d)
Classification of individual parameters used in
the Tunnelling Quality Index Q (cont’d)
‘Q’ Classification System – SRF update
 Q Classification Scheme

Resolves to three parameters

• Block size ( RQD / Jn )
• Interblock shear strength ( Jr / Ja )
• Active stress ( Jw / SRF )

• Does NOT include joint orientation

Equivalent Dimension De
Estimated support categories based on the
tunnelling quality index Q
Q Classification Scheme
 Q Classification Scheme
 J n  1  0 .2  J n  1
Roof pressure: p roof  Q 3 p roof  Q 3
 Jr   3 Jr 
   

2  0.15s 2  0 .15 H
Length of the bolts: L  (roof) L  (walls)
ESR ESR
 40 s   13
Bhasin & Grimstad (1996): p roof   Q
 Jr 
Rc
Young’s modulus: E  103 3 Q MPa
3
Rc
Seismic wave velocity: V p  3.5  log Q [km / s ]
100
RMR – Q - Correlations
• RMR and Q system or variants are the most widely used
• both incorporate geological, geometric and
design/engineering parameters to obtain a “value” of
rock mass quality
• empirical and require subjective assessment
Approach:
• accurately characterise the rockmass ie: full and
complete description of the rockmass
• assign parameters for classification later
• always use two systems for comparison
 Geological Strength Index (GSI)

• Method to link the constants m and s of Hoek-Brown

failure criterion to observations in the field
ie: a possible solution to the problem of estimating
strength of jointed rockmass
• A system for estimating the reduction in rockmass
strength for different geological conditions
• Overcomes deficiencies of RMR for poor quality rock
Estimate of Geological Strength Estimation of constants based upon rock
Index GSI mass structure and discontinuity surface
based on geological descriptions conditions
Geological Strength Index (GSI)
 Geological Strength Index
(GSI)

Estimate of Geological
Strength Index GSI
based on geological
descriptions.
Plots of cohesive strength and friction angles
for different GSI and mi values
 Example: 10 m span
Evaluation of Tunnels RMR = 80
Stand up time > 4 years
based on RMR RMR = 50
Stand up time  2 days

M R
R
 DE

Shotcrete
thickness

Q
Areas within the chart
 area 1  unsupported
 area 2  spot bolting
 area 3  systematic bolting (SB)
 area 4  SB + 40-50 mm shotcrete
 area 5  SB + 50-90 mm FRS
 area 6  SB + 90-120 mm FRS
 area 7  SB + 120-150 mm FRS
 area 8  SB + 150-120 mm FRS, ribbed
 area 9  Cast concrete lining

FRS = fibre reinforced shotcrete

 Example:
10 m span ESR = 2
Q= 40
Tunnels and the Q rating 10 m span ESR = 1
Q= 40
Evaluation of Tunnels
based on Q rating
Example:
 10 m span & ESR = 2
 Q = 40
Area 1: UNSUPPORTED

 10 m span & ESR = 1

 Q = 40
Area (2): SPOT BOLTING
Requires rockbolts at 3 m spacing, 3 m long (max)
 Example:
10 m span ESR = 1
Tunnels and the Q rating Q = 1.0
KEY POINTS?
 Rock mass rating systems are a useful way of
forming an evaluation of rock masses
 The Q or NGI system was based on tunnelling
 The RMR (CSIR) system is more commonly
used for slope stability
 The strength of rock masses can be judged
from these systems