UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF FRENCH EDUCATION
LECTURER: DR. SAMUEL OFORI DANQUAH
COURSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND
LEARNING
COURSE CODE: EDC 241
LEVEL: 200
SEMESTER: 2
GROUP: 1(A)
ASSIGNMENT
PRESENTATION
Topic: Factors affecting learning.
S/N NAME INDEX SIGNATURE
NUMBER
1 HONORE KOFI ZEGUE 5230070153
2 MABEL KOOMSON 5230070062
3 MENSAH ISAAC 5230070105
4 YAKUBU NAFISATU AWINPANG 5230070136
5 GEORGINA ASIRIFUA ADDO 5230070036
6 AGBEME REJOICE 5230070164
7 JENNIFER YEBOAH 5230070157
8 FRIMPONG DANIEL 5230070056
9 KOMIKAN UMAR 5230070101
10 MARTIN KENOU 5230070087
11 AGBESHIE GEORGINA 5230070196
12 ATUAHENE YAA ASOR 5230070145
13 ANOKYE MILLICENT ABENA 5230070097
14 ATSU-SETSOAFIA JULIANA AFI 5230070015
15 AZIAMASO MAWUNYEGAN REMI 5230070106
16 ADWOA ATTA KWABAH 5230070142
17 BENJAMIN OGBORDJOR 5230070171
18 GODFRED YARO BANJEED 5230070122
19 ISRAFIL MOHAMMED 5230070124
20 EYRAM AGBEKO KUIVI 5230070161
21 KWAME ROMEO TIBEDOB 5230070113
22 ASHONG ABIGAIL BOWAAH 5230070178
23 ABIGAIL YIGNAMPIM 5230070071
24 JOSEPHINE CHRISTIAN-EXCELLENCE 5230070046
25 JEAN KOFI LANGUIE 5230070022
26 KWAME PHILIP 5230070104
27 NANA AFIA ASANTE 5230070091
28 AZIABLE ESSI DEBORA 5230070070
29 AMOUSSOU KOUASSIALE GERMINE 5230070051
30 ADOMA CHARITY 5230070049
31 MATILDA BAAH 5230070014
32 SHIABI SOLACE SEFAKOR 5230070053
33 DEDY ROGER 5230070100
34 OBENG GYAMFUAH AKOSUA 5230070151
35 WISDOM KOFI KUDEKA 5230070006
36 ANIM OBENG ELLEN 5230070060
37 RICHMOND SARPONG ARTHUR 5230070039
38 KLU MARK 5230070118
39 BENJAMIN OGBORDJOR 5230070171
40 CAROLINE NUNEKPEKU 5230070181
41 SANDRA TAMATEY TERTERKIE 5230070093
42 MAGHAN AMIDUN 5230070167
43 EDEM KLEVOR KODJO 5230070135
44 BABA - ALI MOHAMMED MAIGA 5230070184
45 MANFUL DOREEN 5230070115
46 KWASITSE MICHEALLA BLESS 5230070024
47 BRIGHT NKETIAH OBENG 5230070094
48 STEPHEN OFOSU 5230070188
49 OFOSU SAMUEL 5230070154
50 PAULINA MORTEY 5230070180
51 AKRASI DELVA 5230070120
52 AHIABLE KOSSI FRANCOIS 5230070204
53 GRACE AMA GBORDJOR 5230070077
54 BROWNSY FELIX 5230070146
55 MAWULI AGBEHIA KODZO AKPALOO 5230070078
56 ADU TAWIAH BISMARK 5230070195
57 KWASITSE MICHEALLA BLESS 5230070024
58 FRANCK KOUASSI DJAHA 5230070047
59 ABRA PORTIA ANIEWU 5230070007
60 DIANA KPLIBITSI KUSORGBOR 5230070040
61 ABIGAIL MAWUSI ABAKEY 5230070069
62 KOFI NGUESSAN SYLVAIN 5230070045
63 HARRIET FAMEYEH 5230070168
64 PERPETUAL ESI MENSAH 5230070048
65 ESTHER AWINI 5230070082
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
• MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
• EMOTIONAL FACTORS
• SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
• COGNITIVE FACTORS
• MEMORY
• CATEGORIES OF MEMORY
• FORGETTING
• TECHNIQUES OF MINIMISING FORGETTING .
• EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Learning can be explained as a constant companion guiding us
from our first steps to the most complex ideas. According to
Domjan (2010), learning is defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior due to experience. Almost all behaviours are
learned e.g. writing, eating, walking, dancing etc.You would be
unable to read, write, or speak if you had not learnt how to
engage in these behaviours.
NB: Temporal behaviour changes do not qualify as learning.
Factors affecting learning among individuals varies in different
ways base on genetic or environmental factors. Here are some
of the factors affecting learning:
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
Intrinsic motivation: Learners who are intrinsically
motivated, such as those who find the subject
matter inherently interesting or meaningful, tend to
exhibit deeper engagement and better learning
outcomes. For example, a student who is genuinely
passionate about science is more likely to delve
deeper into the subject and explore it beyond the
curriculum (Ryan & Deci,2000).
• Extrinsic motivation: While extrinsic factors like grades and
rewards can motivate learners, they may have different long-
term effects compared to intrinsic motivation. Excessive
reliance on extrinsic rewards can sometimes undermine
intrinsic motivation and lead to a focus on performance rather
than mastery (Deci et al, 1999).
• Goal orientation: Learners with a mastery goal orientation,
who are focused on improving their skills and understanding,
tend to have better learning outcomes than those with a
performance goal orientation, who are primarily concerned
with outperforming others. This is because mastery-oriented
learners are more likely to engage in challenging tasks and
persist in The face of difficulties ( Dweck, 1986).
EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Anxiety, stress, and fear: High levels of negative
emotions can impair cognitive processes, such as
memory and problem-solving, and hinder
learning. For instance, test anxiety can lead to
poor performance on exams, as the anxiety
interferes with the learner's ability to effectively
recall and apply their knowledge (Eysenck et al,
2007).
• Mood and emotional state:
Positive emotional states, such as excitement or
contentment, can enhance learning by facilitating
the engagement of cognitive resources and
promoting curiosity and exploration. In contrast,
negative states like boredom or frustration can
impede learning (Pekrun, 2006).
• Attitude towards learning and the subject
matter: Learners with a positive attitude and
interest in the subject matter are more likely to
actively engage with the material, leading to better
learning outcomes. For example, a student who
enjoys reading and writing is more likely to excel
in literature classes compared to a student who has
a negative attitude towards the subject (Schiefele,
1991).
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• Family and peer support: The level of encouragement and
support from family, friends, and peers can significantly
impact a learner's motivation and engagement. Learners
who receive strong social support are more likely to persist
in the face of challenges and achieve better learning
outcomes (Wentzel, 1998).
• Teacher-student relationships: Positive and supportive
relationships between teachers and students can foster a
more conducive learning environment. When learners feel
valued, respected, and understood by their teachers, they
are more likely to be engaged and motivated to learn
(Cornelius-White, 2007).
• Classroom climate and culture: Factors such as the level of
collaboration, inclusivity, and intellectual challenge in the
classroom can influence learning. A classroom environment
that promotes active participation, intellectual discourse, and a
growth mindset can enhance learning (Kaplan et al., 2002).
• Access to educational resources: The availability and
quality of learning materials, technology, and other resources
can significantly impact learning outcomes. Disparities in
access to these resources can create barriers to learning,
especially for students from disadvantaged backgrounds
(Reardon, 2011).
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Physical health and nutrition: Adequate nutrition,
physical activity, and overall health can support
cognitive function and energy levels, which are
essential for effective learning. For example, studies
have shown that regular exercise can improve memory,
attention, and academic performance in students (Sibley
& Etnier, 2003).
Sleep quality and quantity: Sufficient and high-
quality sleep is crucial for learning, memory
consolidation, and cognitive processes. Lack of sleep
can impair attention, memory, and decision-making,
ultimately hindering learning (Curcio et al, 2006).
Sensory abilities: Any impairments in vision,
hearing, or other senses can affect the learner's
ability to perceive and process information
effectively. Addressing these sensory issues,
such as providing assistive technologies or
accommodations, can help learners better engage
with the learning material (Stinson & Antia,
1999).
COGNITIVE FACTORS
Intelligence and aptitude: Learners with higher cognitive
abilities, such as stronger reasoning and information
processing skills, often find it easier to understand complex
concepts. For example, students with high fluid intelligence
may excel at solving novel problems, while those with high
crystallized intelligence may better recall and apply their
existing knowledge.
- Prior knowledge and experience: Learners who have more
relevant background knowledge and experience in a subject
area can more easily integrate new information and make
connections. For instance, a student with prior experience in
programming will find it easier to learn a new programming
language compared to someone with no coding experience.
• Memory capacity and retrieval: Learners with better
memory capacity and the ability to effectively store and recall
information tend to perform better academically. Research has
shown that strategies like spaced repetition and retrieval
practice can enhance memory and learning (Roediger &
Karpicke, 2006).
• Attention and concentration: Maintaining focus and
attention is crucial for learning, as it allows learners to
actively process and engage with the material. Techniques like
mindfulness and limiting distractions can help improve
attention and learning outcomes (Mrazek et al, 2013).
MEMORY
Memory refers to the processes that are used to
acquire, store,
retain, and later retrieve information. It is the ability to
take in information, store it, and recall it at a
later time. So, memory can simply be defined as the
retention of
information over time for the purpose of influencing
future actions (use).
CATEGORIES OF MEMORY
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed
three categories of
memory namely.
• The sensory memory OR sensory
register.
• The short-term memory OR working
memory
• Long term memory
• Information initially entered through the senses is stored
in the memory bank known as the sensory register. For
each of the five senses, there is a distinct sensory register.
• The memory system's reception of visual information is
handled by iconic memory.
• The auditory information that the memory system
receives is stored in the echoic memory.
• Haptic memory is the one responsible for movement-
based information that is received by the memory system.
• Olfactory memory: This codes for smell based information
that is being received by the sensory memory
• Gustatory memory: This codes for taste based information.
E.g. You are able to code whether a certain type of food tastes
sour, bitter, sweet etc.
• Short-Term Memory: Also referred to as working memory,
short-term memory can retain just a small number of items
(about seven +/- two items), and it only lasts for 20 seconds.
However, through processes like rehearsal, items can be
transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.
• Long-term memory: Is a memory that stores information
such as autobiography for a very long period of time.
There are two types of long-term memory. These are, explicit
memory and implicit memory.
FORGETTING
Refers to the loss of information from the memory or the
inability to access information stored in the memory.
There are theories of forgetting.
These are:
Theory of Disuse: Loss of information which is not used for
a long period of time.
Theory of Decay: This states that any material put into the
short term memory establishes a trace.
Theory of Interference: certain events causes the loss of
information in the memory. These are types of inferences that
affect information retention. Proactive interference and
retroactive interference.
Amnesia: is a suddenly memory loss. There are
two types of amnesia these are; Retrograde
and Anterograde.
Other factors that influence forgetting are:
Retrieval failure
Ineffective encoding
Motivated forgetting
Organic causes
TECHNIQUES OF MINIMISING FORGETTING
INCLUDES
Rehearsal
Organisation
Maintaining rehearsal
Attention
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Attention is essential for students to keep good
memory of what they have studied. Teachers need to
creatively sustain students attention in class.
• This can be done by providing frequent breaks from
task requiring considerable attention and concentration
• Other effective strategies the attention of students are
putting variety in topics and using different
presentation styles
• Allow students to ask questions.
Try to minimize distractions when independent work is assigned
to help sustain attention.
• Monitor students’ behaviors
• Learners can process only a limited amount of information at a
time. Therefore, lessons should not be overloaded.
• Learners differ in their ability to control what they attend and
consciously think about.
REFERENCES
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are
effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113-143.
Curcio, G., Ferrara, M., & De Gennaro, L. (2006). Sleep loss, learning capacity,
and academic performance. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 10(5), 323-337.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of
experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic
motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668.
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T.
(2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning
techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational
psychology.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning.
American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040-1048.
