MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Grinding

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 ABRASIVE MACHINING
• An abrasive is a hard material that can cut or
abrade other substances.
• Natural abrasives have existed from the earliest
times.
• For example, sandstone was used by ancient
peoples to sharpen tools and weapons.

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 ABRASIVE MACHINING
• Ancient peoples produced their utensils, tools,
and weapons by rubbing hard stones against
softer materials to abrade away unwanted
portions, leaving desired shapes.

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 ABRASIVE MACHINING
• Abrasive machining is a material removal process
that involves the interaction of abrasive grits with
the workpiece at high cutting speeds and
shallow penetration depths.
• The chips that are formed resemble those
formed by other machining processes.
• The abrasive machining processes are generally
used as finishing operations.
• Unquestionably, abrasive machining is the oldest
of the basic machining processes. 4
 ABRASIVE MACHINING
• Abrasive processes are important commercially
and technologically for the following reasons:
– They can be used on all types of materials ranging
from soft metals to hardened steels and hard
nonmetallic materials such as ceramics and silicon.
– Some of these processes can produce extremely fine
surface finishes, to 0.025 µm.
– For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be
held to extremely close tolerances.
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GRINDING

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GRINDING

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 GRINDING
• Grinding is a material removal process
accomplished by abrasive particles that are
contained in a bonded grinding wheel rotating at
very high surface speeds.
• The grinding wheel is usually disk-shaped, and is
precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.

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 GRINDING
• Grinding is similar to the milling process.
• Cutting occurs on either the periphery or the face
of the grinding wheel, similar to peripheral and
face milling.
• The rotating grinding wheel consists of many
cutting teeth (the abrasive particles), and the
work is fed relative to the wheel to accomplish
material removal.

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 GRINDING
• Despite these similarities, there are significant
differences between grinding and milling:
– the abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller
and more numerous than the teeth on a milling
cutter
– cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in
milling
– the abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are randomly
oriented and possess on average a very high negative
rake angle
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 GRINDING
– a grinding wheel is self-sharpening—as the wheel
wears, the abrasive particles become dull and either
fracture to create fresh cutting edges or are pulled
out of the surface of the wheel to expose new grains.

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THE GRINDING WHEEL

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 THE GRINDING WHEEL
• A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles
and bonding material.
• The bonding material holds the particles in
place and establishes the shape and structure of
the wheel.

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 THE GRINDING WHEEL
• These two ingredients and the way they are fabricated
determine the five basic parameters of a grinding
wheel:
(1) abrasive material,
(2) grain size,
(3) bonding material,
(4) wheel structure,
(5) wheel grade.
• To achieve the desired performance in a given
application, each of the parameters must be carefully
selected. 14
 (1) ABRASIVE MATERIAL
• Different abrasive materials are appropriate for
grinding different work materials.
• General properties of an abrasive material used
in grinding wheels include high hardness, wear
resistance, toughness, and friability.
• Hardness, wear resistance, and toughness are
desirable properties of any cutting-tool material.

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 (1) ABRASIVE MATERIAL
• Friability refers to the capacity of the abrasive
material to fracture when the cutting edge of the
grain becomes dull, thereby exposing a new
sharp edge.
• Most commonly used Abrasive grains are
– Aluminum oxide
– silicon carbide
– Diamond Grains
– Boron Carbibe and Cubic Boron Nitride
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 (1) ABRASIVE MATERIAL
• Aluminium oxide is used for grinding steels,
ferrous alloys and other high strength materials
• Silicon carbide, due to its high brittleness (less
shock absorbing capacity), is used for hard and
brittle material such as chilled cast iron ,
ceramics, glass etc. it is also used for low strength
material such as Al, Cu, Brass
• Diamond grains are used for extremely hard
materials e.g. ceramics and tungsten carbide.
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 (1) ABRASIVE MATERIAL
• Other abrasive materials used are Boron Carbide
and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN). Both of these
materials have hardness near to diamond.CBN is
used for high speed grinding of extra hard and
difficult to grind material

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 (2) GRAIN SIZE
• The grain size of the abrasive particle is
important in determining surface finish and
material removal rate.
• Small grit sizes produce better finishes, whereas
larger grain sizes permit larger material
removal rates.
• Thus, a choice must be made between these two
objectives when selecting abrasive grain size.
• The selection of grit size also depends to some
extent on the hardness of the work material. 19
 (2) GRAIN SIZE
• Harder work materials require smaller grain
sizes to cut effectively, whereas softer materials
require larger grit sizes.
• Grain sizes used in grinding wheels typically
range between 8 and 250.
• Grit size 8 is very coarse and size 250 is very
fine.

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 (2) GRAIN SIZE

Mesh/Screen/Sieve Size = 8
Grain/Grit Size = 8

Particle Size that would

pass through Mesh

1’’
8 openings
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 (2) GRAIN SIZE

Mesh/Screen/Sieve Size = 16
Grain/Grit Size = 16

Particle Size that would

pass through Mesh

1’’
16 openings
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 (3) BONDING MATERIAL
• The bonding material holds the abrasive grains
and establishes the shape and structural integrity
of the grinding wheel.
• Desirable properties of the bond material include
strength, toughness, hardness, and temperature
resistance.

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 (3) BONDING MATERIAL
• The bonding material must be:-
– able to withstand the centrifugal forces and high temperatures
experienced by the grinding wheel
– resist shattering in shock loading of the wheel,
– hold the abrasive grains rigidly in place
to accomplish the cutting action.
• Commonly used bond materials are
– Vitrified bond
– resinoid
– rubber
– shellac and silicate bonds
• Vitrified bond is the most common bond material . 24
 (4) WHEEL STRUCTURE
• Wheel structure refers to the relative spacing of
the abrasive grains in the wheel.
• In addition to the abrasive grains and bond
material, grinding wheels contain air gaps or
pores, as illustrated in Figure.

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(4) WHEEL STRUCTURE

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 (4) WHEEL STRUCTURE
• The volumetric proportions of grains, bond
material, and pores can be expressed as
Pg+ Pb + Pp = 1 (1)

–Pg = proportion of abrasive grains in the total wheel

volume
–Pb = proportion of bond material
– Pp = proportion of pores (air gaps)
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 (4) WHEEL STRUCTURE
• Wheel structure is measured on a scale that
ranges between‘‘ open’’ and ‘‘ dense. ’’
• An open structure is one in which Pp is relatively
large, and Pg is relatively small.
• That is, there are more pores and fewer grains
per unit volume in a wheel of open structure.
• Generally, open structures are recommended in
situations in which clearance for chips must be
provided.
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 (4) WHEEL STRUCTURE
• By contrast, a dense structure is one in which Pp
is relatively small, and Pg is larger.
• Dense structures are used to obtain better
surface finish and dimensional control.
• The pore structure creates spaces between the
grains that provide coolant retention and areas
for the chips to form. Dense wheels are best for
harder materials, while more open densities are
better for the softer metals.
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 (5) WHEEL GRADE
• Wheel grade indicates the grinding wheel’s bond
strength in retaining the abrasive grits during
cutting.
• This is largely dependent on the amount of
bonding material present in the wheel structure
— Pb in Eq (1).
• Grade is measured on a scale that ranges
between soft and hard.

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 (5) WHEEL GRADE
• ‘‘ Soft ’’ wheels lose grains readily, whereas
‘‘ hard ’’ wheels retain their abrasive grains.
• Soft wheels are generally used for applications
requiring low material removal rates and
grinding of hard work materials.
• Hard wheels are typically used to achieve high
stock removal rates and for grinding of relative
soft work materials.

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 Grinding Wheel Specification
• The preceding parameters can be concisely
designated in a standard grinding wheel marking
system defined by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
• This marking system uses numbers and letters to
specify abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure,
and bond material.
• Marking system for diamond and cubic boron
nitride grinding wheels as defined by ANSI
Standard is shown on the next slide. 32
Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Prefix: Manufacturer’s
symbol for abrasive
(optional).

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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Abrasive type: D = diamond,

B = cubic boron nitride

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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Grain size:
Coarse = 8 to 24,
Medium = 30 to 60,
Fine = 70 to 180,
Very fine = 220 to 600.
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Marking System For For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Grades:
Scale ranges from A to Z
A = soft,
M=medium,
Z = hard
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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Concentration:
Manufacturer’s designation.
May be number or symbol.

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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Bond Type: M = metal

B = Resin, V = Vitrified

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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Bond Modification:
Manufacturer’s notation of special
bond type or modification.

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Marking System For DIAMOND AND CUBIC
BORON NITRIDE Grinding Wheels

XX D 150 P YY M ZZ 3

Depth of Abrasive:
Working depth of abrasive
section in mm or inches

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Marking System For CONVENTIONAL
GRINDING WHEELS

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 GRINDING WHEEL SHAPES
• Grinding wheels come in a variety of shapes and
sizes, as shown in Figures ahead.
• Configurations (a), (b), and (c) are peripheral
grinding wheels, in which material removal is
accomplished by the outside circumference of
the wheel.

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(a) STRAIGHT GRINDING WHEEL

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(a) STRAIGHT GRINDING WHEEL

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(b) RECESSED TWO SIDES GRINDING WHEEL

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(b) RECESSED TWO SIDES GRINDING WHEEL

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(c) METAL WHEEL FRAME WITH ABRASIVE BONDED
TO OUTSIDE CIRCUMFERENCE

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(c) METAL WHEEL FRAME WITH ABRASIVE BONDED
TO OUTSIDE CIRCUMFERENCE

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 GRINDING WHEEL SHAPES
• A typical abrasive cutoff wheel is shown in (d),
which also involves peripheral cutting.

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(d) ABRASIVE CUTOFF WHEEL

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(d) ABRASIVE CUTOFF WHEEL

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 GRINDING WHEEL SHAPES
• Wheels (e), (f), and (g) are face grinding wheels,
in which the flat face of the wheel removes
material from the work surface.

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(e) CYLINDER GRINDING WHEEL

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(e) CYLINDER GRINDING WHEEL

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(f) STRAIGHT CUP GRINDING WHEEL

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(f) STRAIGHT CUP GRINDING WHEEL

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(g) FLARING CUP GRINDING WHEEL

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(g) FLARING CUP GRINDING WHEEL

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 WHEEL WEAR
• Grinding wheels wear, just as conventional
cutting tools wear.
• Three mechanisms are recognized as the
principal causes of wear in grinding wheels:
(1) grain fracture,
(2) attritious wear, and
(3) bond fracture.

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 (1) GRAIN FRACTURE
• Grain fracture occurs when a portion of the grain
breaks off, but the rest of the grain remains
bonded in the wheel.
• The edges of the fractured area become new
cutting edges on the grinding wheel.
• The tendency of the grain to fracture is called
friability.
• High friability means that the grains fracture
more readily because of the cutting forces on the
grains . 60
 (2) ATTRITIOUS WEAR
• Attritious wear involves dulling of the individual
grains, resulting in flat spots and rounded edges.
• Attritious wear is analogous to tool wear in a
conventional cutting tool.
• It is caused by similar physical mechanisms
including friction and diffusion, as well as
chemical reactions between the abrasive
material and the work material in the presence
of very high temperatures
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 (3) BOND FRACTURE
• Bond fracture occurs when the individual grains
are pulled out of the bonding material.
• The tendency toward this mechanism depends
on wheel grade, among other factors.
• Bond fracture usually occurs because the grain
has become dull because of attritious wear, and
the resulting cutting force is excessive.
• Sharp grains cut more efficiently with lower
cutting forces; hence, they remain attached in
the bond structure. 62
 WHEEL WEAR
• The three mechanisms combine to cause the
grinding wheel to wear as depicted in Figure.
• Three wear regions can be identified.
• In the first region, the grains are initially sharp,
and wear is accelerated because of grain
fracture.
• This corresponds to the‘‘ break - in’’ period in
conventional tool wear.

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WHEEL WEAR

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 WHEEL WEAR
• In the second region, the wear rate is fairly
constant, resulting in a linear relationship
between wheel wear and volume of metal
removed.
• This region is characterized by attritious wear,
with some grain and bond fracture.
• In the third region of the wheel wear curve, the
grains become dull , and the amount of plowing
and rubbing increases relative to cutting.
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 WHEEL WEAR
• In addition, some of the chips become clogged in
the pores of the wheel .
• This is called wheel loading ,and it impairs the
cutting action and leads to higher heat and work
surface temperatures.
• As a consequence, grinding efficiency decreases,
and the volume of wheel removed increases
relative to the volume of metal removed.

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 WHEEL WEAR
• When the wheel is in the third region of the wear
curve, it must be resharpened by a procedure
called dressing, which consists of
– breaking off the dulled grits on the outside periphery
of the grinding wheel in order to expose fresh sharp
grains.
– removing chips that have become clogged in the
wheel.
• It is accomplished by a rotating disk, or another
grinding wheel operating at high speed, held
against the wheel being dressed as it rotates. 67
 GRINDING OPERATIONS
• Grinding is traditionally used to finish parts
whose geometries have already been created by
other operations.
• Accordingly, grinding machines have been
developed to grind plain flat surfaces, external
and internal cylinders, and contour shapes.
• Grinding is also used in tool rooms to form the
geometries on cutting tools.

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 GRINDING OPERATIONS

(1) Surface Grinding,

(2) Cylindrical Grinding,
(3) Centerless Grinding.

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 (1) SURFACE GRINDING
• Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain
flat surfaces.
• It is performed using either the periphery of the
grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel.
• Because the work is normally held in a horizontal
orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by
rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis, and
face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel
about a vertical axis.
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 (1) SURFACE GRINDING
• In either case, the relative motion of the
workpart is achieved by reciprocating the work
past the wheel or by rotating it.
• These possible combinations of wheel
orientations and workpart motions provide the
four types of surface grinding machines
illustrated in Figure.

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(a) Horizontal Spindle With Reciprocating (b) Horizontal Spindle With Rotating Worktable
Worktable

(c) Vertical Spindle With Reciprocating (d) Vertical Spindle With Rotating Worktable
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 (1) SURFACE GRINDING
• Of the four types, the horizontal spindle machine
with reciprocating worktable is the most
common.
• Grinding is accomplished by reciprocating the
work longitudinally under the wheel at a very
small depth (infeed) and by feeding the wheel
transversely into the work a certain distance
between strokes.
• In these operations, the width of the wheel is
usually less than that of the workpiece. 73
(1) SURFACE GRINDING

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 (2) CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
• As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is used
for rotational parts. These grinding operations
divide into two basic types:
(a) external cylindrical grinding and
(b) internal cylindrical grinding.

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 (2) EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
• External cylindrical grinding (also called center-type
grinding) is performed much like a turning
operation.
• The grinding machines used for these operations
closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has
been replaced by a high-speed motor to rotate the
grinding wheel.
• The cylindrical workpiece is rotated between centers
to provide a surface speed of 18 to 30 m/min , and
the grinding wheel, rotating at 1200 to 2000 m/min
is engaged to perform the cut. 76
 (2) EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

• External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts

that have been machined to approximate size
and heat treated to desired hardness.
• The parts include axles, crank-shafts, spindles,
bearings and bushings .
• The grinding operation produces the final size
and required surface finish on these parts.

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 FIGURE

EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL

GRINDING GRINDING
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 (2) EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

• There are two types of feed motion possible,

traverse feed and plunge-cut, shown in Figure.
• In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is fed in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
workpart.
• The infeed is set within a range typically from
0.0075 to 0.075 mm.
• In plunge-cut, the grinding wheel is fed radially
into the work. Formed grinding wheels use this
type of feed motion 79
 FEED MOTION

TRAVERSE FEED PLUNGE-CUT

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 (2) INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

• Internal cylindrical grinding operates somewhat

like a boring operation.
• The work-piece is usually held in a chuck and
rotated to provides surface speeds of 20 to 60
m/min .
• Wheel surface speeds similar to external
cylindrical grinding are used.
• The wheel is fed in either of two ways: traverse
feed, or plunge feed.
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 (2) INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

• Obviously, the wheel diameter in internal

cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the
original bore hole.
• This often means that the wheel diameter is
quite small, necessitating very high rotational
speeds in order to achieve the desired surface
speed.
• Internal cylindrical grinding is used to finish the
hardened inside surfaces of bearings and
bushing surfaces. 82
 (3) CENTERLESS GRINDING
• Centerless grinding is an alternative process for
grinding external and internal cylindrical
surfaces.
• As its name suggests, the workpiece is not held
between centers.
• This results in a reduction in work handling time;
hence, centerless grinding is often used for high-
production work.

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 (3) CENTERLESS GRINDING
• The setup for external centerless grinding
consists of two wheels: the grinding wheel and a
regulating wheel as shown in the figure.
• The workparts, which may be many individual
short pieces or long rods (e.g., 3 to 4 m long), are
supported by a rest blade and fed through
between the two wheels.
• The grinding wheel does the cutting, rotating at
surface speeds of 1200 to 1800 m/min.
84
(3) EXTERNAL CENTERLESS GRINDING

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 (3) CENTERLESS GRINDING
• The regulating wheel rotates at much lower
speeds and is inclined at a slight angle I to
control throughfeed of the work.
• The typical setup in internal centerless grinding is
shown in Figure.
• In place of the rest blade, two support rolls are
used to maintain the position of the work.
• The regulating wheel is tilted at a small
inclination angle to control the feed of the work
past the grinding wheel. 86
(3) INTERNAL CENTERLESS GRINDING

87
 Other Terms with Grinding
• Glazing: During grinding the high strength
material, hard materials, abrasive edges of
grinding wheel get dull because of their edges
get rounded off. The surface of the wheel
becomes smooth and shining and it ceases to cut
effectively.
• Wheel loading: This is the process of the tiny
chips being accumulated in the gap between the
two successive grains called gullet. Again the tool
ceases to cut efficiently. 88
 Other Terms with Grinding
• Dressing: defines the process of re-sharpening
the grinding wheel. This process is used to
fracture or tear away the glazed or loaded outer
surface of the wheel and a newer surface with
new cutting edges is exposed and the wheel can
again be used for effective grinding.
• Truing: It is done to create a true surface on a the
grinding wheel, this is done by a diamond point
tool.
89