National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS)
Department of Basic Sciences
Discrete Mathematics
MATH-161
Lecture # 6
Course Instructor: Dr Saira Zainab
Cell # :03325193283
Email:
[email protected] Office # 207, IAEC
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Translation of Logic into English and Vice
Versa
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Logical Equivalence
Definition
Two proposition form are called logically equivalent if
and only if they have identical truth values for each
possible substitution of propositions for their
proposition variable.
The logical equivalence of proposition forms p
and q is written
p≡q
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Equivalence of Two Compound
Propositions p and q
1. Construct the truth table for p.
2. Construct the truth table for q using the
same proposition variables for identical
component propositions.
3. Check each combination of truth values of
the proposition variables to see whether the
truth value of p is the same as the truth
value of q.
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Equivalence Check
a. If in each row the truth value of p is the
same as the truth value of q, then p and q
are logically equivalent.
b. If in some row p has a different truth value
from q, then p and q are not logically
equivalent.
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Example
• Prove that ¬ (¬p)≡ p
Solution
p ¬p ¬ (¬p)
T F T
F T F
As you can see the corresponding truth values of p
and ¬ (¬p) are same, hence equivalence is justified.
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Example
Show that the proposition forms ¬(pq) and ¬p ¬q are
NOT logically equivalent.
p q ¬p ¬q (pq) ¬(pq) ¬p¬q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T
Here the corresponding truth values
differ and hence equivalence does
not hold
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De Morgan’s laws
De Morgan’s laws state that:
The negation of an and proposition is
logically equivalent to the or proposition in
which each component is negated.
The negation of an or proposition is logically
equivalent to the and proposition in which
each component is negated.
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De Morgan’s laws
De Morgan’s laws state that:
The negation of an and proposition is
logically equivalent to the or proposition in
which each component is negated.
The negation of an or proposition is logically
equivalent to the and proposition in which
each component is negated.
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Symbolically (De Morgan’s Laws)
1. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q
2. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q
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Applying De-Morgan’s Law
Question: Negate the following compound Propositions
1. John is six feet tall and he weighs at least 200
pounds.
2. The bus was late or Tom’s watch was slow.
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Inequalities and De Morgan’s Laws
Question Use De Morgan’s laws to write the negation of
-1< x 4
Solution: The given proposition is equivalent to
-1 < x and x 4,
By De Morgan’s laws, the negation is
-1 ≥ x or x > 4. 12
Laws of Logic
1. Commutative laws
pq ≡ qp ; pq ≡ qp
2. Associative laws
p (q r) ≡ (p q) r ; p(q r) ≡ (pq)r
3. Distributive laws
p (q r ) ≡ (p q) (p r)
p (q r) ≡ (p q) (p r)
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Laws of Logic
4. Identity laws
p t ≡ p ; pc ≡ p
5. Negation laws
p¬p ≡ t ; p ¬p ≡ c
6. Double negation law
¬(¬p) ≡ p
7. Idempotent laws
p p ≡ p ; pp ≡ p
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Laws of Logic
8. Universal bound laws
pt≡t ;pc≡ c
9. Absorption laws
p (pq) ≡ p ; p (p q) ≡ p
10. Negation of t and c
¬t ≡ c ; ¬c ≡ t
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Logical Equivalences involving →
• p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
• p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p
• p ∨ q ≡ ¬p → q
• p ∧ q ≡ ¬(p → ¬q)
• ¬(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ¬q
• (p → q) ∧ (p → r) ≡ p → (q ∧ r)
• (p → r) ∧ (q → r) ≡ (p ∨ q) → r
• (p → q) ∨ (p → r) ≡ p → (q ∨ r)
• (p → r) ∨ (q → r) ≡ (p ∧ q) →r
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Logical Equivalences involving ↔
• p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
• p ↔ q ≡ ¬p ↔ ¬q
• p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q)
• ¬(p ↔ q) ≡ p ↔ ¬q
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Exercise
Using laws of logic, show that
¬(¬p q) (p q) ≡ p.
Solution
Take ¬ (¬p q) (p q)
≡ (¬(¬p) ¬q) (p q), (by De Morgan’s laws)
≡ (p ¬q) (p q), (by double negative law)
≡ p (¬q q), (by distributive law)
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contd…
≡ p (q ¬q), (by the commutative law)
≡ p c, (by the negation law)
≡ p, (by the identity law)
Skill in simplifying proposition forms is useful in
constructing logically efficient computer programs
and in designing digital circuits.
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Try as much as you can from…
Relevant Exercises given at the end of Section 1.1 of :
Discrete Mathematics and its Applications
(with Combinatorics and Graph Theory)
6th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007,
Kenneth H. Rosen
(Already uploaded on LMS)
