GENERAL ANATOMY

(Musculoskeletal System)

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN ANATOMY

JKUAT
Divisions of study in Musculoskeletal System
Musculoskeletal system can be divided into 3 areas of study;
1. Osteology:- Study of Bones
2. Myology:- Study of Muscles
3. Arthrology:- Study of Joints

1. Osteology
-Is the study of skeleton/bones
-Human skeleton has 206 bones
22 bones in skull
6 in middle ears
1 hyoid bone
26 in vertebral column
25 in thoracic cage

4 in pectoral girdle
60 in upper limbs
60 in lower limbs
2 in pelvic girdle

206 bones in all

 Skeletal System:
• Composed of the body’s bones and associated
ligaments, tendons, and cartilages.
• Functions:
1. Support
• The bones of the legs, pelvic girdle, and
vertebral column support the weight of the
erect body.
• The mandible (jawbone) supports the
teeth.
• Other bones support various organs and
tissues.
2. Protection
• The bones of the skull protect the brain.
• Ribs and sternum (breastbone) protect
the lungs and heart.
• Vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
Skeletal System
cont…
• Functions cont….
3. Movement
• Skeletal muscles use the bones as levers to move
the body.
4. Reservoir for minerals and adipose tissue
• 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bone.
• 85% of the body’s phosphorous is stored in
bone.
• Adipose tissue is found in the marrow of certain
bones.
• What is really being stored in this case? (hint
– it starts with an E)
5. Hematopoiesis
• A.k.a. blood cell formation.
• All blood cells are made in the marrow of certain
bones.
Bone Classification according
to location/region.
• There are 206 named bones in the
human body.
• Each belongs to one of 2 large groups:
• Axial skeleton
• Forms long axis of the body.
• Includes the bones of the skull,
vertebral column, and rib cage.
• These bones are involved in
protection, support, and carrying
other body parts.
• Appendicular skeleton
• Bones of upper & lower limbs
and the girdles (shoulder bones
and hip bones) that attach them
to the axial skeleton.
• Involved in locomotion,
movement and manipulation of
the environment.
Further Bone Classification
according to shape/
morphology.
Classification based on shape (morphology)
Femur 
• 5 types of bones:
1. Long Bones
• Much longer than they are
wide.
• All bones of the limbs except for
the patella (kneecap), and the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
• Consists of a shaft plus 2
expanded ends.
2. Short Bones
• Roughly cube shaped.
• Bones of the wrist and the
ankle .

Carpal Bones
Bone Classification cont….

3. Flat Bones
• Thin, flattened, and usually a bit curved.
• Scapulae (shoulder blades), sternum,
ribs and most bones of the skull.
4. Long-short bones
• Have the diaphysis and one epiphysis.(the Sternum
other expanded end develops due to use)
• Your finger bones are long-short bones
even though they’re very short – how can
this be?
5. Irregular Bones
• Have weird shapes that fit none of
the 3 previous classes.
• Vertebrae, hip bones, 2 skull bones
( sphenoid and the ethmoid
bones). Sphenoid
Sesamoid bones. Bone
Sesamoid bones:
They are bones usually embedded in tendons eg the patella bone
The characteristic features of sesamoid bones include:-
1. These are bone nodules found embedded in tendons where they lie
close to articular surface
2. They have no periosteum.
3. They are always completely ossified

• Functions of sesamoid bones includes:-

1. Alter the direction of pull of muscle.
2. To minimize friction.
3. To modify pressure.
4. Aids in maintaining the local circulation.
Bones classification the basis of shape

Figure 5.1
Bones classification according to mode of development:
(a) Intramembranous (Dermal) bone: Develops from direct
transformation of condensed mesenchyme, e.g., bones of skull.

(b) Intra-cartilaginous (Endochondral) bone: Replaces a preformed

cartilage model, e.g., bones of limb and thoracic cage.

(c) Membrano-cartilaginous bone: Develops partly in membrane and

partly in cartilage, e.g., clavicle, mandible, scapula.
Bone Structure:
• Bones are organs. They are a living tissue
which are highly specialized, hard form
of connective tissue.
• Bones are composed of;).
• Fibrous connective tissue.
• Cartilage.
• Vascular tissue.
• Lymphatic tissue.
• Adipose tissue.
• Nervous tissue.
• All bones consist of a
dense, solid outer layer
known as compact
bone and an inner
layer of spongy bone – Above: Note the relationship btwn the
a honeycomb of flat, compact and spongy bone.

needle-like projections Below: Close up of spongy bone.

called trabeculae.
• Bone is an extremely
dynamic tissue!!!!
Note the gross differences between the spongy bone and the
compact bone in the above photo.
Do you see the trabeculae?
 Bone Structure
cont…
• Bone tissue is a type of connective
tissue, so it must consist of cells
plus a significant amount of
extracellular matrix.
• Bone cells:
1. Osteoblasts
• Bone-building cells.
• Synthesize and secrete
collagen fibers and other
organic components of bone
matrix.
• Initiate the process of
calcification.
• Found in both the The blue arrows indicate the
periosteum and the osteoblasts. The yellow arrows indicate
endosteum the bone matrix they’ve just secreted.
.
Yellow arrows indicate
2. Osteocytes osteocytes – notice
how they are
• Mature bone cells. surrounded by the
• Osteoblasts that have pinkish bone matrix.
become trapped by Blue arrow shows an
the secretion of osteoblast in the
process of becoming an
matrix. osteocyte.
• No longer secrete
matrix.
• Responsible for
maintaining the bone
tissue.

On the right, notice how the osteocyte

is “trapped” within the pink matrix
3. Osteoclasts
• Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes
(a type of white blood cell).

• Cells that digest bone matrix – this process is called bone

resorption and is part of normal bone growth, development,
maintenance, and repair.

• Concentrated in the endosteum.

Bone Structure
cont….
• Bone Matrix:
• Consists of organic and inorganic
components.

• 1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic by weight.

• Organic component consists of several
materials that are secreted by the
osteoblasts:
• Collagen fibers and other organic
materials
• These (particularly the collagen) provide
the bone with resilience and the ability
to resist stretching and twisting.
 Three-dimensional array of collagen molecules.
The rod-shaped molecules lie in a staggered
arrangement which acts as a template for bone
mineralization. Bone mineral is laid down in the
gaps.

• Inorganic component of
bone matrix Note collagen fibers in longitudinal & cross section
and how they occupy space btwn the black bone cells.
• Consists mainly of 2 salts:
calcium phosphate and
calcium hydroxide. These
2 salts interact to form a
compound called
hydroxyapatite.
• Bone also contains smaller
amounts of magnesium,
fluoride, and sodium.
• These minerals give bone
its characteristic hardness
and the ability to resist
This bone:
a. Has been demineralized
b. Has had its organic component removed
Long Bone
Structure
• It has a shaft plus 2 expanded ends.
• Shaft is known as the diaphysis.
• Consists of a thick collar of compact bone
surrounding a central marrow cavity
• In adults, the marrow cavity contains fat -
yellow bone marrow.
• Expanded ends are epiphyses
• Thin layer of compact bone covering an
interior of spongy bone.
• Joint surface of each epiphysis is covered
w/a type of hyaline cartilage known as
articular cartilage. It cushions the bone
ends and reduces friction during
movement.
Long Bone
Structure
• The external surface of the entire bone
except for the joint surfaces of the epiphyses
is covered by a double-layered membrane
known as the periosteum.
• Outer fibrous layer is dense irregular
connective tissue.
• Inner cellular layer contains
osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts.
• Periosteum is richly supplied with nerve
fibers, lymphatic vessels and blood
vessels.
• These enter the bone of the shaft via
a nutrient foramen.
• Periosteum is connected to the bone
matrix via strong strands of collagen
(shappy fibers)
Long Bone
Structure

• Internal bone surfaces are covered with a delicate

connective tissue membrane known as the endosteum.

• Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone in the marrow cavities

and lines the canals that pass through compact bone.
• Contains both osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
 Structure of Short,
Irregular, and Flat Bones
• Thin plates of periosteum-covered
compact bone on the outside and
endosteum-covered spongy bone
within.
• Have no diaphysis or epiphysis
because they are not cylindrical.
• Contain bone marrow between their
trabeculae, but no marrow cavity.
• In flat bones, the internal spongy bone
layer is known as the diploe and the
whole arrangement resembles a
stiffened sandwich.
Bone Marrow
• Bone marrow is a general term for the soft
tissue occupying the medullary cavity of a
long bone, the spaces amid the trabeculae
of spongy bone, and the larger haversian
canals.
• There are 2 main types: red & yellow.
• Red bone marrow = blood cell forming tissue
= hematopoietic tissue
• Red bone marrow looks like blood but with a
thicker consistency.
• It consists of a delicate mesh of reticular tissue
saturated with immature red blood cells and
scattered adipocytes.
Notice the red marrow
and the compact bone
Distribution of
Marrow Note the compact bone on the
• In a child, the medullary cavity of nearly every bottom and marrow on the top.
bone is filled with red bone marrow.
• In young to middle-aged adults, the shafts of
the long bones are filled with fatty yellow
bone marrow.
• Yellow marrow no longer produces blood,
although in the event of severe or chronic
anemia, it can transform back into red
marrow
• NB: In adults, red marrow is limited to the
axial skeleton, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle,
and proximal heads of the humerus and the
femur.
Microscopi The diagram below represents a long bone
c Structure shaft in cross-section. Each yellow circle
represents an osteon. The brown represents
of Compact additional matrix filling in the space between
osteons. The black in the middle is the
Bone marrow cavity.

• Consists of multiple
cylindrical structural units
known as osteons or
haversian systems.
• Imagine these osteons as
weight-bearing pillars that
are arranged parallel to one
another along the long axis
of a compact bone.
Osteons
• Each osteon consists of a single central canal,
known as a haversian canal, surrounded by
concentric layers of calcified bone matrix.
• Haversian canals allow the passage of blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.
• Each of the concentric matrix “tubes” that
surrounds a haversian canal is known as a
lamella.
• All the collagen fibers in a particular lamella
run in a single direction, while collagen
fibers in adjacent lamellae will run in the
opposite direction. This allows bone to
better withstand twisting forces.
Bone
Development
• Osteogenesis (a.k.a. ossification)
is the process of bone tissue
formation.
• In embryos this leads to the
formation of the bony skeleton.
• In children and young adults,
ossification occurs as part of
bone growth.
• In adults, it occurs as part of
bone remodeling and bone
repair.
Formation of the Bony
Skeleton
• Before week 8, the human
embryonic skeleton is made of
fibrous membranes and hyaline
cartilage.
• After week 8, bone tissue begins to
replace the fibrous membranes and
hyaline cartilage.
• The development of bone from a
fibrous membrane is called
intramembranous ossification.
Why?
• The replacement of hyaline cartilage
with bone is known as endochondral
ossification. Why?
Intramembranous Ossification
• Some bones of the skull (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital bones), the
facial bones, the clavicles, the pelvis, the scapulae, and part of the mandible are
formed by intramembranous ossification
• Prior to ossification, these structures exist as fibrous membranes made of
embryonic connective tissue known as mesenchyme.
• Mesenchymal cells first
cluster together and start to
secrete the organic
components of bone matrix
which then becomes
mineralized through the
crystallization of calcium
salts. As calcification occurs,
the mesenchymal cells
differentiate into osteoblasts.
• The location in the tissue
where ossification begins is
known as an ossification
center.
• Some osteoblasts are
trapped within bony pockets.
These cells differentiate into
osteocytes.
• The developing bone grows outward from the ossification center
in small struts called spicules.
• Mesenchymal cell divisions provide additional osteoblasts.
• The osteoblasts require a reliable source of oxygen and
nutrients. Blood vessels trapped among the spicules meet these
demands and additional vessels branch into the area. These
vessels will eventually become entrapped within the growing
bone.
• Initially, the intramembranous bone consists only of spongy bone.
Subsequent remodeling around trapped blood vessels can produce osteons
typical of compact bone.

• As the rate of growth slows, the connective tissue around the bone
becomes organized into the fibrous layer of the periosteum. Osteoblasts
close to the bone surface become the inner cellular layer of the
periosteum.
Endochondral
Ossification
• Begins with the formation of a hyaline cartilage model which will
later be replaced by bone.
• Most bones in the body develop via this model…(long bones).
• More complicated than intramembranous because the hyaline
cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds.
• We’ll follow limb bone development as an example.
Growth in Bone
Length
• Epiphyseal cartilage (close to
the epiphysis) of the
epiphyseal growth plate
divides to create more
cartilage, while the
diaphyseal cartilage (close to
the diaphysis) of the
epiphyseal plate is
transformed into bone. This
increases the length of the
shaft.
At puberty, growth in bone length is
increased dramatically by the combined
activities of growth hormone, thyroid
hormone, and the sex hormones.

•As a result osteoblasts begin producing

bone faster than the rate of epiphyseal
cartilage expansion. Thus the bone grows
while the epiphyseal plate gets narrower
and narrower and ultimately disappears. A
remnant (epiphyseal line) is visible on X-
rays (do you see them in the adjacent
femur, tibia, and fibula?)
Growth in Bone Thickness
• Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on
the external surface of the bone. This obviously makes the
bone thicker.
• At the same time, osteoclasts on the endosteum break
down bone and thus widen the medullary cavity.
• This results in an increase in shaft diameter even though the
actual amount of bone in the shaft is relatively unchanged.
1. Axial skeleton:
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Has 3 parts

1. Bones of the Skull

-Has 2 sets of bones
• Neurocranium-Bones of the calvaria and base of the skull-8 bones

• Viscero-cranium-Facial bones-14 bones

-Bones are joined by sutures

• Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint.

• Bones of the neurocranium -two are paired :
• Frontal bone: 1
• Parietal bones: 2
• Occipital bone: 1
• Temporal bones: 2
• Sphenoid bone: 1
• Ethmoid bone: 1

• The facial bones consist of the following, two are single:

• Zygomatic bones: 2
• Maxillae: 2
• Nasal bones: 2
• Lacrimal bones: 2
• Vomer: 1
• Palatine bones: 2
• Inferior conchae: 2
• Mandible: 1
The Skull

Figure 5.7
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11
Human Skull, Superior View of the cranial base

Figure 5.8
Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
Sutures
• Are types of fibrous joints contained in the bones of the skull
• The major ones are;Coronal, Sagittal, Squamous, Lambdoidal
 The Fetal Skull
• Fontanelles – fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
• Allow the brain to grow
• Slides over each other when the child is
being born
• Bulge in case of infection and increased
intracranial pressure or when the child is
crying.
• Closes at 6 months and 18 months
respectively
• Are depressed in case of severe
dehydration.

Figure 5.13
Features of a fetal skull
• The facial skeleton is smaller in size compared to the cranial vault
• The presence of fontanelles along the superior, posterior and lateral aspect of
the skull
• The inner and outer table are not separated as diploe is not fully developed
• The mandible is smaller in width and less curved as compared to adult due to
absence of teeth-also there is intermandibular suture
• The paranasal air sinuses are absent in the maxilla, frontal, sphenoidal and
ethmoid bones
• Presence of metopic suture separating the frontal bones.
• The mastoid process is absent.
• The tympanic membrane(ear drum) is more exposed to the surface because
the external acoustic meatus is not fully developed
• Maxilla is small and is in two parts separated by intermaxillary suture
• The inner cranial surface communicates with the outside through the unfused
Pneumatized bones
Craniometric Reference Points
 The Hyoid Bone
• The only bone that does not
articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the
tongue

Figure 5.12
 2. The Bony Thorax

• Made-up of three
parts
• Sternum
• Ribs
• Thoracic vertebrae
• Forms a cage to
protect major
organs

Figure 5.19a
3. Bones of the Vertebral Column

• Are 33 in number ;
-7cervical, 12 thoracic,5 lumber, 5 fused sacral and 4 fused
coccygeal.

• Vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs

• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

Figure 5.14
The Appendicular Skeleton

Components:
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle
• Limbs (appendages)
Bones of the Upper Limbs
Components;
1. Pectoral girdle
-Clavicle/collar bone
-Scapula/shoulder blade
2. Humerus-Arm
3. Radius and Ulna-Forearm
4. Carpals-Wrist
5. Metacarpals-Palm
6. Phalanges-Fingers
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
-Is the set of bones in the appendicular skeleton which connects to the

arm on each side.

-These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free
movement.
-Pectoral girdle is composed of two bones
• Clavicle – collarbone
• Scapula – shoulder blade
1. Clavicle/collar bone
• Is a slender bone with an 'S' shape.
• Facing forward, the medial aspect is convex, and the lateral aspect concave.
• It can be divided into a sternal end, a shaft and an acromial end.

Peculiar Features of the Clavicle

1. Lateral 2/3rd develops via intra-membranous ossification while
medial 1/3rd is via intra- cartilaginous ossification.
2. It is the only long bone that lies horizontal.
3. Connects axial and appendicular skeleton.
4. It is the 1st bone to undergo full ossification.
5. It’s the last bone to ossify in life.
6. Lies subcutaneous throughout its entire length.
7. Has haematopoietic function throughout life.
8. It has no medullary cavity like the other long bones.
9. If it is fractured, its entraps the cutaneous supraclavicular nerves during healing process.
Clavicle
2. Scapula/Shoulder Blade
• Is a large triangular-shaped bone that lies in the upper back.
• The bone is surrounded and supported by a complex system of muscles
that work together to help in moving the arm.
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

Figure 5.20a–b
Bone of the Arm- Humerus
• Is the largest bone of the upper extremity

• It articulates proximally with the glenoid via the glenohumeral (GH)

joint and distally with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.
Bones of forearm
1.Radius
• Is in the lateral forearm when in the anatomical position
• Forms radio-ulnar joint at the elbow joint and the radio-carpel joint
at the wrist joint.

2.Ulna
• Is in the medial forearm when in the anatomical position
• It forms the elbow joint with the humerus and also articulates with
the radius both proximally and distally.
 Bone of the Hand-Carpal,
Metacarpals and Phalanges
• Carpals – wrist
• Metacarpals – palm
• Phalanges – fingers

Figure 5.22
Bones of the lower limbs
Components;
1. Pelvic girdle-Pelvis
2. Femur-Thigh
3. Patella-Knee joint
4. Tibia and Fibula-Leg
5. Tarsals-Ankle joint
6. Metatarsals-Foot
7. Phalanges-Toes
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle-Hip bones
• Pelvic/innominate bone-composed of three pair of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubic bone
• Two pelvic/ innominate bones-Pelvic girdle
• Pelvic girdle +Sacrum and coccyx-Pelvis
• It serves as an attachment point for trunk and lower limb
• It supports the weight of the upper body
• Protects several organs including;
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
Pelvic/Innominate/coxa
bone
The Pelvis

Figure 5.23a
The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone

Figure 5.23b
 Bones of the Thigh-Femur
Is the longest and strongest bone in the body.

Figure 5.24a–b
 Bones of the Knee joint- Patella
• Is a triangular bone at the front of the knee.
• Reduce tension in tendons and ligaments
 Bones of the Leg-Tibia and
Fibula
Tibia/Shinbone
• Is the larger of the two bones of the leg.
• It supports most of your weight
• Is an important part of both the knee joint and ankle joint.

Fibula/calf bone
• The top end of the fibula is located below the knee joint but is not
part of the joint itself.

• The lower end of the fibula forms the outer part of the ankle joint.
• Serves as an area for muscle attachment
Figure 5.24c
 Bones of the Foot
-Has 26 bones
• 7 Tarsus – ankle
• 5 Metatarsals – sole
• 14 Phalanges – toes

Figure 5.25
3. Classification of bones are according to mode of
development
(a) Intramembranous (Dermal) bone: Develops from direct
transformation of condensed mesenchyme, e.g., bones of skull.

(b) Intra-cartilaginous (Endochondral) bone: Replaces a preformed

cartilage model, e.g., bones of limb and thoracic cage.

(c) Membrano-cartilaginous bone: Develops partly in membrane and

partly in cartilage, e.g., clavicle, mandible, scapula.
 Functions of the Bones
• Support of the body
• Protection of soft organs
• Locomotion due to attached skeletal muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
• Blood cell formation
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
Structure of a long bone
1. Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone

2. Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy bone

3. Metaphysis
Is the he narrow portion of a bone between
diaphysis and epiphysis
-Contains the growth plate.-f active growth of
bone Figure 5.2a
Different types of epiphyses
(a)Pressure epiphysis: Articular and takes part in
transmission of weight, e.g., head of femur, lower end of
radius, medial end of clavicle.

(b)Traction epiphysis: Non articular. One or more tendon is

attached to it which it exerts a traction on it, e.g.,
trochanters of femur.
c) Atavistic epiphysis: Phylogenetically represents a separate bone
which in man has become fused to another bone, e.g., coracoid
process of scapula
-It is separate in other mammals
d) Aberrant epiphysis: These are not always present/are deviation
from normal, e.g., Epiphysis at head of first metacarpal
Other structures of a Long Bone
• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the
diaphysis
• Composed of Fibrous
connective tissue
membrane

• Sharpey’s /perforating
fibers
• Matrix of connective
tissue (collagen fibres)
that connect periosteum
to underlying bone)

• Endosteum: A membrane
lining the inner surface of Figure 5.2c
the bony wall
The arterial supply of a long bone
The arterial supply of a long bone is derived from four sources:
(a) Nutrient artery
• It enters the shaft through nutrient foramen and runs obliquely in cortex
and divides into ascending and descending branches in medullary cavity.
Supplies inner 2/3rd of cortex

b) Juxta-epiphysial (metaphyseal) arteries

• These are derived from anastomosis around the joint.
• They nourish osteoprogenitor cells (processors for bone repair)
which lay down bone on cartilage matrix.

c) Epiphysial arteries:
-Are responsible for permitting longitudinal growth to occur

d) Periosteal arteries:
www.LabScience.org
 Structure of a Long Bone
Medullary cavity
• Cavity of the shaft

• Contains red marrow (for

blood cell formation) in
infants

• Contains yellow marrow

(with fats) in adults

Figure 5.2a
 Structure of a Long Bone Ctd……
Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface
of the epiphyses

• Made of hyaline cartilage

• Decreases friction at joint

surfaces

Figure 5.2a
Bone Growth
1. Growth of bones in Length
• Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal growth plate (metaphysis) by
a process referred to as endochondral ossification.

• The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the

epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis.

• The chondrocytes in the region next to the diaphysis, age and

degenerate (becomes ossified)

• Bone replaces cartilage

2. Growth of bones in Width/diameter
• Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they
can continue to increase in thickness or diameter throughout life in
response to stress from increased muscle activity or due to weight.

• The increase in diameter is called appositional growth.

• Appositional growth is accompanied by bone remodelling, the

processes of bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by
osteoclasts.
Types of Bone Cells
1. Osteoblasts
• Bone-forming cells

2. Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells

3. Osteoclasts
• Bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release
calcium

NB/Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and

osteoclasts
 Changes in the Human Skeleton with age
• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage

• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone

• Cartilage remains in isolated areas

• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints