CB Chapter 3
Learning and Memory
1
Agenda
• The Learning Process
• Marketing Applications
• The Memory Process
• Memory Systems
• Retrieving Information
2
The Learning Process
• It is important for marketers to understand
how consumers learn about products and
services.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in
a behaviour, caused by experience. Learning
can occur through simple associations
between a stimulus and a response or via a
complex series of cognitive activities.
• Learning is a continuous process.
3
I.I. Behavioural
Behavioural Learning
Learning Theories
Theories
Conditioning results in learning.
Behavioural learning theories - assume that learning occurs
as the result of responses to external events. This view is
represented by two major approaches to learning:
classical conditioning and operant (instrumental)
conditioning.
1. Classical Conditioning – is the learning that occurs
when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an
unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus
that initially does not elicit a response on its own, but it
will cause a similar response over the time because of its
association with the first stimulus.
- Pavlov
4
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired
a number of times (repetition).
Extinction – a learned connection between a stimulus and
a response is eroded so that the response is no longer
reinforced.
Stimulus generalization – the behavior caused by a
reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presence of
other, similar stimuli.
Stimulus discrimination – behaviour caused by two stimuli
is different, as when consumers learn to differentiate a
brand from its competitors.
5
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Brand Equity – a brand that has strong positive
associations in consumer’s memory and commands a
lot of loyalty as a results.
Applications of stimulus generalization:
- family branding
- product line extensions
- licensing
- look-alike packaging.
Applications of stimulus discrimination:
- promoting the unique attribute of their brands
6
2. Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning = Instrumental Conditioning - the
process by which an individual learns to perform behaviours that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes. While classical conditioning involves the pairing of two
stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when reinforcement is
delivered following a response to a stimulus.
- Skinner
• Positive Reinforcement – rewards provided by the
environment strengthen responses to stimuli
• Negative Reinforcement – environment weakens responses to
stimuli so that inappropriate behaviour is avoided.
• Punishment – the learning that occurs when a response is
followed by unpleasant events.
• Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement is no
longer received.
Applications
- frequency marketing – reinforces regular purchasers
by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the 7
amount purchased.
II. Cognitive Learning Theory
Observation of other’s behavior can result in learning.
Cognitive Learning Theory - stresses the importance of
internal mental process.
Cognitive Learning
• Consciousness – with a clear purpose
• Observation – watch others
• Modeling – imitating the behaviour of others
Observational learning – people learn by watching the actions
of others and noting the reinforcements they receive for
their behavior.
Applications
- product demonstrations
- ads showing people telling their stories
8
The Memory Process
• Memory refers to the storage of learned
information. The way the information is encoded
when it is perceived determines how it will be
stored in memory.
• Memory - involves a process of acquiring
information and storing it over time so that it will
be available when needed.
– Encoding – information from short-term memory is
entered into long-term memory in a recognizable from
– Storage – knowledge entered in long-term memory is
integrated with what is already in memory and
“warehoused” until needed.
– Retrieval – desired information is accessed from long-
term memory.
9
The
The Memory
Memory Process
Process
External
External Inputs
Inputs
Encoding
Encoding
Information
Informationis
is
Placed
PlacedininMemory
Memory
Storage
Storage
Information
Information
is
isRetained
Retainedin
inMemory
Memory
Retrieval
Retrieval
Information
InformationStored
Stored
in
inMemory
MemoryisisFound
FoundasasNeeded
Needed 10
Memory Systems
• Information-processing perspective
• Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated
into knowledge structures where it is associated with other
related data. The way the information is encoded when it is
perceived determines how it will be stored in memory. The
memory systems known as sensory memory, short-term
memory and long-term memory each play a role in
retaining and processing information from the outside
world.
– Sensory Memory – the temporary storage of information
received from the senses.
– Short-term Memory – the system that allows us to retain
information for a short period of time.
– Long-term memory – the system that allows us to retain
11
information for a long period of time.
Memory
Memory Systems
Systems
Sensory
Sensory Memory
Memory
Attention
Attention gate
Short-Term
Short-Term Memory
Memory
Elaborative
Elaborative Rehearsal
Rehearsal
Long-Term
Long-Term Memory
Memory
12
Memory
• Sensory Memory
• Very Short Term
What things do you forget very quickly?
• Short Term Memory - RAM
• Acoustical Storage vs Semantic Storage
• Long Term Memory
What makes some things more "memorable"?
• Elaborative Rehearsal
How do we go about deep processing
of concepts, ideas, products?
13
Retrieving
Retrieving Information
Information
The location of product information in associative networks and the
level of abstraction at which it is encoded help to determine when
and how this information will be activated at a later time.
Retrieval is the process whereby information is accessed from long-
term memory. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval
include:
• Familiarity – prior familiarity enhances recall. What's it like that
you already know? What "hangers" do you have in your mind
on which you can hang up a new idea?
• Salience – salience increases recall. How much does it stick
out in your mind as being important?
• Pictorial/verbal Cues – pictorial ads may enhance recall, but
they do not necessarily enhance comprehension. Easier to
remember what it looks like (most of us are visual learners).
• State-dependent Retrieval – people are better able to access
information if their internal state is the same at the time of recall
as it was when it was learned = mood congruence. Why we 14
hold exams in the same room as class.
Forgetting is caused by
• Decay - when we don't use something, we forget it
– Example?
What product did you used to buy
that you've forgotten about?
Is this a trick question??
How are you supposed to answer this?!
• Interference – a process whereby additional
learned information displaces the earlier
information, resulting in memory loss for the item
learned previously.
15
Marketing Strategies
• Products help us to retrieve memories from
the past
• Products also play a role as memory
markers; they are used by consumers to
retrieve memories about past experiences
(autobiographical memories) and are often
valued for their ability to do so.
• This function also contributes to the use of
nostalgia in marketing strategies.
16
Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
• Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.
• Memory of product information can be measured through
either recognition or recall techniques.
• Recognition versus recall
– Recognition – people are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have
seen it before
– Recall – people are asked to think independently of what they have seen,
without being prompted for this information first.
• Consumers are more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is
presented to them than to recall one without having any cues.
• Recall = Preference? Neither recognition nor recall automatically translates
into product purchases.
17
