Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SPSS
• SPSS is a powerful software used for statistical analysis
and data management. It's widely employed in various
fields, including social sciences, market research,
healthcare, and education
Student t-test
• Student's t-test is a statistical test used to determine if
there is a significant difference between the means of two
groups. It is particularly useful when the sample sizes are
small
• Designed by W.S Gossett
Types of t-tests
• Independent t-test: Used to compare the means of two
independent groups (e.g., comparing the test scores of
boys and girls)
• Paired t-test: Used to compare the means of two related
groups (e.g., comparing the pre and post-test scores of
the same group of students) / We collect data at two
different times on a single sample drawn from population.
Assumptions
• Normality: The data should be normally distributed.
• Independence: The observations should be independent
of each other.
• Homogeneity of variance: The variances of the two
groups should be equal (in the case of the independent t-
test
Steps involved in performing a t-test:
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
2. Determine the significance level (α)
3. Calculate the t-statistic
4. Determine the degrees of freedom
5. Find the critical value
6. Compare the t-statistic to the critical value
7. Interpret the results
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
• In Statistical Hypothesis Testing, the Null hypothesis (H0)
is the statement of "No Effect" or "No Difference." It is
the default assumption that there is no significant
relationship or difference between variables
• The Alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that
contradicts the null hypothesis. It suggests a significant
relationship or difference between variables
2. Determine the Significance level (α)
• The significance level (α) in statistical hypothesis testing
represents the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
(H0),
When it is actually true. It's also known as the Type I error rate
a. The Right α Choice
• The choice of α depends on the specific context of the
research and the consequences of making a Type I error.
A lower α value means a lower probability of rejecting a
true null hypothesis, but it also increases the chance of
failing to reject a false null hypothesis (Type II error)
b. Commonly Used α Values
• 0.05: This is the most commonly used significance level,
meaning there's a 5% chance of rejecting a true null
hypothesis.
• 0.01: A more stringent level, indicating a 1% chance of a
Type I error.
3. Calculate the t-statistic
• To calculate the Student t-statistic, you'll need the
following information
• Sample means: The means of the two groups being
compared.
• Sample standard deviations: The standard deviations of
the two groups.
• Sample sizes: The number of observations in each group
t- Test Formula
Determination of degree of freedom
• Degrees of freedom (df) in statistics refer to the number of
independent observations or pieces of information
available in a data set. It's a crucial concept in many
statistical tests, including the t-test, ANOVA, and chi-
square test.
Example
4. Find the critical value
• A critical value is a statistical value that separates a
rejection region from a non-rejection region in a
hypothesis test. It's used to determine whether a
calculated statistic (like a t-statistic) is significant enough
to reject the null hypothesis
Chi Square Test
• Developed by Karl Pearson
• Non Parameteric test (Independent of distribution of data)
• Applied to catagorical data
Two types
1. Chi Square goodness of fit
2. Test of Independence
What is a Chi-Square Test?
• The chi-square test is a statistical hypothesis test
commonly used to determine if there is a significant
difference between observed and expected frequencies in
one or more categories of a categorical variable. It's a
non-parametric test, meaning it doesn't rely on
assumptions about the underlying distribution of the data
Types
Goodness of Fit Test:
Tests if observed frequencies match expected frequencies.
For example, testing if a coin is fair by comparing the
observed number of heads and tails to the expected 50-50
split
• Test of Independence: Determines if two categorical
variables are independent of each other. For instance,
testing if there is a relationship between Gender and
Smoking habits
Assumptions
Independence:
– Observations must be independent of each other.
Expected Frequencies:
– Expected frequencies should be at least 5 for most cells in the
contingency table. If this condition is not met, Fisher's exact test
can be used
Procedure
1. State Hypotheses
2. Create a Contingency Table
3. Calculate Expected Frequencies
4. Calculate the Chi-Square Statistic
5. Determine Degrees of Freedom
6. Find the P-Value
7. Make a Decision
Continued
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