CRIMINOLOGICAL
RESEARCH 1
(RESEARCH
METHODS WITH
APPLIED STAT)
Miss Geraldine Nolasco
RESEARCH
According to Aquino, research in the systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic or
problem.
Research also has been define as the process of
gathering data or information to solve a particular
problem in a scientific manner (Manuel and Medel)
Is a process in which you engage in a small set of
logical steps.
Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information in order to increase our
understanding of a topic or issues. At a general
level, research is consist of 3 steps:
Pose a question
Collect data to answer the question
Present an answer to the question
WHY IS RESEARCH IMPORTANT?
Research adds to our knowledge
Research improves Practice
Research Informs Policy Debates
Research builds students research skills
Research serves as preservation and
improvement of the quality of life.
PURPOSES AND GOALS OF RESEARCH
1. To discover new facts about known phenomena
2. To find answers to problems
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new
instruments or products.
4. To discover previously unrecognized
substances or elements.
5. Discover pathways of action of known
substances and elements.
6. To order related, valid generalizations into
systematized science.
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business,
industry, education, government, and in other
undertakings.
CONTINUATION
To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
To find answers to queries by means of scientific
methods.
To acquire a better and deeper understanding about
one phenomenon that can be known and understood
better by research –is why women are generally
smaller than men.
To expand or verify existing knowledge.
To improve educational practices for raising the
quality of school products.
To promote health and prolong life.
To provide man with more of his needs-more and
better food, clothing, shelter, etc.
To make work, travel, and communication faster,
easier, and more comfortable.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
Research is systematic.
Research is controlled.
Research is empirical.
Research is analytical,
Research is objective, unbiased and logic.
Research is employs quantitative or statistical
methods.
Research employs hypothesis.
Research is original work.
Research is accurate investigation, observation and
description.
Research is patient and unhurried activity.
Research requires an effort-making capacity.
Research requires courage.
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF
RESEARCH
There are many kinds or classifications of
research which are classified according to their
distinctive features. Some of the classifications
are as follows:
According to Purpose
According to Goal
According to the Levels of Investigation
According to the type of Analysis
According to Scope
According to the Choice of Answers to
Problems
According to Statistical Content
According to Time Element
A. ACCORDING TO
PURPOSE
Travers (1978) identifies three broadly different kinds of
research namely, predictive, directive, and illuminative.
Predictive or Prognostic Research
Has the purpose of determining the future operation of the
variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better.
Predictive research proposes to give the result from one
specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish
a close statistical connection between characteristics of the
students and prediction of educational outcome.
Directive Research – determines what should be done
based on the findings this is to remedy an unsatisfactory
condition, if there is any.
Illuminative Research- is concerned with the interaction
of the components of the variable being investigated, as
for example. “interaction of the components of and aims
to show the connections among.”
B.ACCORDING TO GOAL
1. Basic or Pure Research
– is done for the development of theories and
principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure
or learning much of this kind of research has been done
in psychology and sociology.
2. Applied Research
– is the application of the results of pure research. This
is testing the efficacy of theories and principles.
-to determine if this is true , one conducts an
experiment in which there are two classes. In one
class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no
praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end
of the experimental period , he gives the same test to
the two classes. If the scores of the students in the
class with praise are significantly higher than those in
the class without praise. Then the principle is true.
C. ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF
INVESTIGATION
-Vockell (1993) categorizes research
according to the levels of investigation
into:
1. Exploratory Research – the
researcher studies the variables
pertinent to a specific situation.
2. Descriptive Research – the
researcher studies the relationships of
the variables.
3. Experimental Research – The
experiment studies the effects of the
variables on each other.
D. ACCORDING TO THE
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
Wiersma (1995) classifies into:
1. Analytical Research – the researcher
attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.
2. Holistic Research – begins with the
total situation. Focusing attention on
the system first and then on its internal
relationships.
E. ACCORDING TO SCOPE
under this category is action research.
This type of research is done on a very
limited scope to solve a particular
problem which is not so big. It is almost
problem solving.
F. ACCORDING TO CHOICE
OF ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
This category is concerned with finding
answers to the problems into evaluation
and developmental research.
1. In Evaluation Research, all possible
courses of action are specified and
identified and the researcher tries to
find the most advantageous.
2. In developmental Research ,
the focus is on finding or developing a
more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.
G. ACCORDING TO
STATISTICAL CONTENT
1. Quantitative or Statistical Research – is one
in which inferential statistics are utilized to
determine the results of the study. Inferential
statistics such as correlation, chi-square,
analysis or variance, etc. are used to test the
hypothesis. This type of research usually
includes comparison studies, cause-and –effect
relationships, etc.
2. Non-quantitative Research – This is research
in which the use of the quantity or statistics is
practically not utilized. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where description is
usually used. Descriptive data are gathered
rather than quantitative data.
H.. ACCORDING TO TIME
ELEMENT
. Historical research describes what
was.
2. Descriptive research describes what
is.
3. Experimental research describes
what will be.
Historical, descriptive, and experimental
are the three major research methods,
all other methods, kinds, and types of
research whatever they are called fall
under there three major methods.
SOME HINDRANCES TO SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION INQUIRY
Tradition
Authority
Inaccurate Observation
Overgeneralization
Selective Observation
Made-up information
Illogical Reasoning
Ego
Mystification
To err is human
Dogmatism
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD
OF RESEARCH (SEQUENTIAL)
Determining (recognizing) the problem
Forming a hypothesis
Doing the library research
Designing the study
Developing the instruments for collecting
data
Collecting data
Analyzing the data
Determining implications and conclusions
for the findings
Making recommendations for further
research.
PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
Rigid control – is the manipulation of research
variables.
Objectivity - is that there should be no bias or
partiality in treating the result of inquiry.
Systematic Organization – refers to proper and
accurate tabulation of data as well as
presenting them in statistical tables ready for
interpretation.
Rigorous standards - refers to the setting up of
standards or principles which serve as Basis for
the evaluation of the findings of a study. This
also refers to the accurate statistical
computation and interpretation of qualified
data.
DESIGNING THE STUDY
Designing the study must allow the
scientific method of research. Aside
from choosing the problem, forming the
hypothesis , and library research, it also
includes deciding on the method of
research to be used, the study of the
population, the instruments for
gathering data and its preparation, the
sampling design, statistical treatment of
data, and analysis and presentation of
data.
There are three major research
methods with their respective variations
from which the researcher may choose
the method to use depending upon the
nature of investigation. These are as
follows:
Historical
Descriptive
Experimental methods of research
HOW IS A PROBLEM KNOWN TO BE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
Based on the book of Jose F. Calderon &
Expectation C. Gonzales, As define a
problem is 1. Any significant, perplexing
and challenging situation, real or
artificial, the solution of which requires
reflective thinking;
2. a perplexing situation after it has
been translated in to a question or
series of questions that help determine
the direction of subsequent inquiry.
Dewy (good, p 414)
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
The term research problem implies that
an investigation, inquiry or study is to
be conducted, or that the problem is
ready for investigation, inquiry or study.
There are certain elements that a
problem must possess before it
becomes a research problem ready for
investigation.
THESE ELEMENTS ARE:
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation.
2. The subject matter or to be investigated.
3. The place or locale where the research is to be
conducted.
4. The period or time of the study during which the
data are to be gathered.
5. Population or universe from whom the data are
to be collected.
6. The period or time of the study during which the
data are to be gathered.
7. Population or universe from whom the data are
to be collected .
8. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation.
CONTINUATION
9. The subject matter or topic to be
investigated.
10. The place or locale where the research
is to be conducted.
11. The period or time of the study during
which the data are to be gathered.
12. Population or universe from whom the
data are to be collected.
13. The period or time of the study during
which the data are to be gathered.
14. Population or universe from whom the
data are to be collected.
WHAT ARE THE GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION
OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC?
1. The research problem or topic must be
chosen by the researcher himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the
researcher.
3. It must be within the specification of
the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of
the researcher to tackle.
5. It must be within the ability of the
researcher to finance; otherwise he must
be able to find funding for hid research.
CONTINUTAION
6. It is researchable and manageable, that
is,
Data are available and accessible.
The data must meet the standards of
accuracy, objectivity, and verifiably.
Answers to the specific questions (sub
problem) can be found.
The hypotheses formulated are testable,
that is, they can be accepted or rejected.
Equipment and instrument for research are
available and can give valid and reliable
results.
CONTINUATION
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of
time unless it is a longitudinal research which takes
along time for its completion.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the
present time and situation, timely and of current
interest.
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking
to solve it.
11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the
researchers but big or large enough to be able to give
significant, valid and reliable results and
generalizations.
12. It must contribute to the national development
goals for the improvement of the quality of human life.
CONTINUATION
13. It must contribute to the fund of
human knowledge.
14. It must show or pave the way for the
solution of the problems intended to be
solved.
15. It must not undermine the moral and
spiritual; values of the people.
16. It must not advocate and change in
the present order of things by means of
violence but by peaceful means.
CONTINUATION
17. There must be return of some kind to the
researcher, either one or all of the following,
if the research report is completed:
Monetary, either increase in salary or
publication of the result in which there is some
kind of royalty.
Advancement of position, promotion.
Improved specialization, competence, and skill
in professional work especially if the research
subject is related to the profession./
Enhanced prestige and reputation.
Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and
interest, and being able to discover truth.
18. There must be a consideration of the
hazards involved, physical, social or
legal .
THE THREE (3) MAJOR RESEARCH
METHODS
Historical research describes what was,
Descriptive research describes what is,
Experimental research describes what will
be.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
According to Consuelo G. Sevilla, Ed. D, jseu a. Ochave,
Ph.D, Twila G. Punsalan, Ragala, and Gabriel, on their
book, Research Method Revised Edition, they ask
“what is the first thing that comes to your mind when
you hear the word history?”..
Most people associate with memorization of events,
dates, and person. Others link it with anything old and
“antique.” Still others connect it with anything boring,
lifeless, and therefore, a dead piece, particularly as a
matter of topic for discussion. Certainly, there are
those who regard history in another way.
They are those who consider history as something
which we ought to be grateful for. Very much
embodied in the Filipino value of appreciating the past
for paving the way for the present and even for the
future .
B. VIEWS ON THE VALUE OF
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
There are many divergent views regarding the
usefulness of historical research. There are
those who believe that historical research.
There are those who believe that historical
investigations help broaden our experience
and make us more Understanding and
appreciative of our human nature and
uniqueness.
They conclude that by knowing our past, we
know the present conditions better. Although
we may not be able to predict accurately using
the facts in history, it can, nevertheless,
familiarize us with what attempts were done
before.
C.HISTORICAL RESEARCH AS A
MODERN UNDERTAKING
You will find it worthwhile to know the
changes in the aim and scope of
historical investigations from the past
to the present.
D. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY
HISTORICAL RESEARCHES
Present historical investigations primarily aim for
critical search for truth. As a researcher, you will
be required to be responsible in recreating past
experiences. This means that in making your
historical report, the actual events and the
conditions of the time are not violated,
exaggerated, or distorted.The critical standards
used by historians may be useful in providing you
the guidelines in your historical study. You may
also consider them as you evaluate the tools and
procedures used by other researchers before
you. Finally, you may use them to assist you to
judge objectively the conditions which lead to the
results of the studies undertaken previously.
E. METHODS OF HISTORICAL
RESEARCHER
When you conduct a historical study,
you undertake a number of activities
awhich are commonly done in all
investigations.
1. Formulating your problem
Gathering your source materials
Classification
of historical sources
Places where the source are located
Systematizing your note-taking
3.CRITICIZING YOUR SOURCE
MATERIALS
One of your essential responsibilities as
a historical researcher is to be able to
detect whether a document is
unintentionally erroneous or deliberately
produced to misinform.
DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
According to Yin (2003)
Descriptive Research describes
what is. It involves the description,
recording, analysis, and interpretation of
the present nature, composition or
processes of phenomena. The focus is
on prevailing conditions, or how a
person, group or thing behaves or
functions in the present. It often
involves some type of comparison or
contrast.
According to Aquino (1970)
Descriptive Research is fact-finding
with adequate interpretation.
According to Best (1998):
Descriptive Research describes and
interprets what is. It is concerned with
conditions of relationships that exists;
practices that prevail; beliefs, processes
that are going on; effects that are being
felt, or trends that are developing
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Case Studies
Surveys,
Developmental Studies,
Follow—up Studies,
Documentary Analysis of Content
Trend Analyses, and,
Correctional Studies
1.CASE STUDY
When you make a detailed study about
one person or unit over a considerable
period of time, you are engaging in what
is known as a case study.
2. SURVEY METHOD
If you intend to gather relatively limited
data from a relatively large number of
cases, the method you can adopt is the
survey study.
Two scopes of surveys
Census – is a survey that covers the
entire population of interest.
Sample Survey – is one which deals only
with a portion of the population.
SURVEYS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR (4)
CATEGORIES ACCORDING TO SCOPE AND SUBJECT
MATTER:
A census of tangibles – covers a small
population where the variables are concrete.
Census of intangibles – this census deals with
construct based from indirect measures.
A Sample Survey of Tangibles – When the
objective of your research requires the data from
large groups wherein the census is not advisable,
sampling techniques are useful.
Sa Sample Survey of Intangibles – When your
survey deals with the measurement of
psychological construct, as well ass comparing a
large population where the variables are not
directly observable, then you engage in as
sample survey intangibles.
3.DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
If your study intends to get reliable
information about the similarities of
children at various ages, how they differ
at the age levels, and how they grow
and develop, then your design may be
a developmental study.
4.FOLLOW-UP STUDIES
Follow-up studies are employed when
you intend to investigate the
subsequent development of
particiapants after a specified treatment
or condition.
5.DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS
If you were involved in gathering
information by examining record and
documents, the method that you may
use is the documentary analysis
technique this method is often referred
to as content analysis.
6.TREND ANALYSIS
For study which seeks status, the trend
analysis will be the most appropriate
method to use. It is employed in studies
which aimed to project the demands or
needs of the people in the future.
7.CORRELATIOANAL STUDIES
These studies are designed to help you
determined the extent to which different
variables are related to each other in
the population of interest.
C.EXPERIMENTAL RESERACH
