Chapter 2
Methods of Data Collection and
Presentation
PH)
Methods of Data collection and Presentation
2.1 Methods of data collection:
Q Source of Data:
Statistical data may be obtained from two sources, namely,
primary and secondary
1 Primary data:
data measured or collected by the investigator or the user directly
from the source. Primary sources are sources that can supply first
hand information for immediate user.
2
Secondary data:
When an investigator uses data, which have already been collected
by others, such data are called secondary data. Data gathered or
compiled from published and unpublished sources
PH)
Methods of data collection
We distinguish three basically different methods of collecting
data. These are
1 Extraction of data from
2 records Self-administered
3 questionnaire
Direct investigation-measurement (observation) of the subject
and interviewing (face-to-face, telephone) our first step is to
decide on which of these three methods to use
PH)
Methods of data collection
Extractions of data from Records
A mass of information about the population studied by social
surveys is available in
historical documents,
statistical reports,
records of institutions
and other sources
PH)
Methods of data collection
Self-administered questionnaire
Self-administered questionnaire : is a method of data collection in which
researchers can give questionnaires with instructions directly to
respondents or mail them to respondents who read instructions and
questions, then record their answers and give it back or return it by mail
again to data collecting agency
Advantage:
It is the cheapest and can be conducted by a single researcher.
A researcher can send questioners to a wide geographical area.
The respondent can complete the questionnaire when it is convenient
and check personnel records if necessary.
Mail questionnaire offer anonymity and avoid interviewer bias.
They are very effective, and response rates may be high for a target
population that is well educated or has a strong interest in the topic
Methods of data collection
Disadvantage
A low response rate is the biggest problem.
A researcher cannot control the conditions under which a
mail questionnaire is completed.
Researcher cannot visually observe the respondent’s
reactions to questions, physical characteristics, or settings.
Mail questionnaire is not suitable for illiterate community.
PH)
Methods of data collection
Direct investigation - measurement
These are:
Observation and
Interviewing (face-to-face, telephone)
Measurement or Observations
Information on a topic can be gathered by measurement if it is
physically measurable or observable. Common types of data collected
by observation and measurement include:
Land area measurement
Crop output measurement
Anthropomorphic measurements
Animal weight gain
Instrument recording or readings (e.g. rainfall, temperature, etc)
Physical measurement or examination of people
Counts of human, animal and plant populations
Direct observations of work
PH)
Methods of data collection
Measurement Or Observation
Exchange activities (e.g. purchases and sale prices).
Q Data collection by measurement can be undertaken is several
ways, some of these are:
The direct measurement of a physical characteristic using an
instrument The observation of people engaged in an activity; and
Recording of relevant aspects of their activities
Q Interviewing (face-to-face, telephone)
Face-to-face interview is a social process that involves the
interviewer and respondent.
It is the process in which the interviewer meets the
respondents, explains the purpose of the study, forwards a
set of questions and records the answers.
It is widely used in economic and social surveys
PH)
Methods of data
collection
Advantages of face-to-face interviews
Q Have the highest response rate and permit the longest
questionnaires.
Q Interviewers control the sequence of questions and use some
probes.
Q Respondent is likely to answer all the questions alone.
Q Interviewers also can observe the surroundings and can use
nonverbal communication and visual aids.
Q Well-trained interviewers can ask all types of questions
including complex questions.
PH)
Methods of data collection
Disadvantage of face to
face
Q Cost is high- that is , recruiting, training, travel, supervisor,
and personnel costs for interviewers can be high.
Q Interviewer bias is also high in this method.
Q The appearance, tone of voice, question wording, and so forth of
the interview may affect the respondent
PH)
Methods of data Presentation
1 Textual Method: – a narrative description of the data
gathered
2 Tabular Method or frequency distribution :– a
systematic arrangement of information into columns and
rows
3 Graphical Method :– an illustrative description of the
data
PH)
THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
(FDT)
Q A FDT is a statistical table showing the frequency or number of
observations contained in each of the defined classes or categories.
Parts of a frequency distribution table:
Heading
Body
Stubs or
classes
Caption
Q Frequency distribution: is a basic techniques that provide rich
insights into the data and lay the foundation for more advanced
analysis.
Q A frequency distribution table: lists categories of scores along with
their corresponding frequencies.
PH)
Frequency distribution
Q It is a grouping of all the (numerical) observations into intervals
or classes together with a count of the number of observations
that fall in each interval or class.
Q A frequency distribution has two main parts:
The values of the variable (if quantitative) or the categories
(if qualitative), and
The number of observations (frequency) corresponding to the
values or categories.
PH)
Frequency Distributions
There are two types of Frequency distributions
1 Categorical (or qualitative)
2 Numerical (or quantitative)
Categorical Frequency Distribution:
Data are classified according to non-numerical categories.
Categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Used to present nominal and ordinal data
Nominal data:Here the construction is straight forward: count the
occurrences in each category and find the totals.
Example:The martial status of 60 adults classified as single, married,
divorced and widowed is presented in a FD as below:
Marital status Single Married Divorced Widowed Total
Frequency 25 20 8 7 60
PH)
Categorical Frequency
distribution
Ordinal data:The construction is identical to the nominal case.
How ever, the categories should be put in an ordered manner
Example:Satisfaction of hospital admission in Gondar hospital
size of 80 is presented a FD as shown below.
Satisfaction V.Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied V.Dissatisfied Total
Frequency 15 36 3 7 80
PH)
Numerical Frequency Distribution
Q data are classified according to numerical size.
Q used to summarize interval and ratio data.
Q may be discrete or continuous, depending on whether the
variable is discrete or continuous Population
1
Discrete (Ungrouped) Frequency Distribution
Count the number of times each possible value is repeated
Example:In a survey of 30 families, the number of children per
family was recorded and obtained the following data:
4 2 4 3 2 8 3 4 4 2 2 8 5 3 4 5 4 5 4 3 5 2 7 3 3 6 7 3 8 4 These
individual observations can be arranged in ascending
order of magnitude to from an array:
222223333333444444445555677888
The distribution of children in 30 families would be:
Number of children 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Number of family 5 7 8 4 1 2 3 30
PH)
Continuous frequency distribution
The purpose of this kind of a table is to select a set of intervals on
the number line, then count the number of values that fall into each
interval
definitions of some basic terms
Range (R) – the difference between the highest score and the
lowest score.
Class Interval (k)– a grouping or category defined by a lower
limit and an upper limit.
Class Boundaries (CB) – these are also known as the exact
limits, and can be obtained by subtracting 0.5 from the lower
limit of an interval and adding 0.5 to the upper limit interval.
PH)
Continuous frequency distribution
continuous or grouped frequency distribution
Class Mark (x) – is the middle value or the midpoint of a class
interval. It is obtained by getting the average of the lower class
limit and the upper class limit
Class Size or width (W) – is the difference between the upper
class boundary and the lower class boundary of a class interval
Relative Frequency (RF) – these are the percentage
distribution in every class interval.
Class Frequency – it refers to the number of observations
belonging to a class interval, or the number of items within a
category
PH)
Steps in Constructing a (FDT)
Example: The blood glucose level for 50 patients is shown below.
Construct a frequency distribution for the following data 51 65 68 87 76
56 69 75 89 80 61 66 73 86 79 70 71 54 87 78 68 74 66 88 77 67 73 64 90
77 72 52 67 86 79 74 59 70 89 85 55 63 74 82 84 57 68 72 81 83
Step 1:Find highest and lowest value and compute range R,
using the formula:
R = HighestScore–LowestScore
Step 2:Compute for the number of class intervals, K, by using
the formula Decide k with the help of Sturge’s rule
k = 1 + 3.3 logn
Note: The ideal number of class intervals should be 5 to 15. Less than
8 intervals are recommended for a data with less than 50
observations/values. For a data with 50 to 100
observations/values, the suggested number should be greater
than 8 PH)
Steps in Constructing a (FDT)
Example: The blood glucose level for 50 patients is shown below.
Construct a frequency distribution for the following data
Step 3:Find the class width; w=R/k and closest ones (rounding up)
w = R/k (3)
Step 4:Select the starting observation as lowest class limit (this is usually
the lowest observation). Add the width to that observation to get the lower
limit of the next class. Keep adding until there are k classes
Step 5: Find the upper class limit
Step 7: Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower class
limit and adding 0.5 to the UCL as shown.
step 8:Tally the data
step 9: Write the numeric values for the frequency column
Step 10: Find cumulative frequency.
Step 11: Find relative frequency and /or relative cumulative
frequency.
PH)
Solution of Example:
i Step 1: Highest value 90 and lowest 51 then
range = 90 − 51, range = 39
ii Step 2: the class limit using Sturge’s rule
k = 1 + 3.3 log 50, k = 8
iii Step 3:Find the class width
w = r/k, w = 39/8, w = 4.875 ≈ 5 (6)
iv
Step 4:Select the starting observation as lowest class limit and
Add the width to that observation to get the lower limit of the
next class. Keep adding until there are 5 classes 51, 56, 61, 66,
v
71, 76, 81, 86, 91 Step 5:Find the upper class limit; e.g.
thefirstupperclass = 51 − (U = 56 − 1) = 55 (7)
55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85 and 90 will be the upper class limit
PH)
Example solution
So combining step 4 and step 5, one can construct the following
classes: So combining step 5 and step 6, one can construct the following
classes.
class limit
51-55
56-60
61-65
66-70
71-75
76-80
81-85
86-90
Step 6:: Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower
class limit and adding 0.5 to the UCL as shown Example:
LcB = 51 − 0.5 = 50.05, andUcB = 55 + 0.5 = 55.05
PH)
Example solution
Then continue adding W on both boundaries to obtain the rest
boundaries. By doing so one can obtain the following classes
class boundary
50.5 - 55.5
55.5 - 60.5
60.5 - 65.5
65.5 - 70.5
70.5 - 75.5
75.5 - 80.5
80.5 - 85.5
85.5 - 90 .5
Step 7:Tally the data
step 8:Write the numeric values for the tallies in the frequency column
Step 9:Find cumulative frequency relative frequency and /or relative
cumulative frequency
PH)
The complete frequency distribution table
C.limit C.boun C. M Freq. <CF > CF RF <RCF >RCF
51-55 50.5-55.5 53 4 4 50 0.08 0.08 1
56-60 55.5-60.5 58 3 7 43 0.06 0.14 0.86
61-65 60.5-65.5 63 4 11 39 0.08 0.22 0.78
66-70 65.5-70.5 68 10 21 29 0.2 0.42 0.58
71-75 70.5-75.5 73 9 30 20 0.18 0.60 0.40
76-80 75.5-80.5 78 7 37 13 0.14 0.74 0.26
81-85 80.5-85.5 83 5 42 8 0.1 0.84 0.16
86-90 85.5-90.5 88 8 50 0 0.16 1 0
PH)
Continuous frequency
distribution
Example 2:
Construct a continuous FD for the following raw data of ages of
patients admitted at felege hiwot hospital in a given week.
57, 53, 65, 55, 50, 45, 64, 52, 16, 46, 42, 63, 33, 64, 53, 25, 54, 35,
48,
55, 70, 47, 39, 58, 52, 36, 65, 75, 26, 20, 55, 60, 83, 61, 45, 63, 49,
42,
35, 18, 51, 45, 42, 65, 39, 59, 45, 41, 30, 40
Class work
PH)
Diagrammatic and Graphical Methods of
Data Presentation
A F.D can be presented graphically or diagrammatically
Advantage:
I To understand the information
II easily. To make the data
III attractive.
IV To make comparisons of items
easy. To draw attention of the
observer
Q The purpose of graphs and diagrams is not to provide exact and
detailed information, but simple comparisons. Any further
information shall rather be obtained from the original data.
PH)
2.2.2 Diagrammatic Presentation of Data
Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete as well as qualitative
data. The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation of
data are:
Q Pie charts
Q Bar charts
QPictograms
PH)
Pie Chart
Pie chart: can used to compare the relation between the whole
and its components
Pie chart: is important for depicting discrete variables with
relatively few categories.
Pie chart: is a circular diagram and the area of the sector of a
circle is used in pie chart.
PH)
Steps in constructing a pie-chart
Steps in constructing a pie-
chart
1 Construct a frequency
table
2 Change the frequency into percentage (P) or fraction
(F)
3 Change the percentages into degrees,
where:
componentpart
Angle of Sector ∗◦
total
= 360
4 Draw a circle and divide it accordingly
PH)
pie Chart
Example Pie chart:
The following table gives the details of monthly budget of a
family. Represent these figures by a suitable diagram.
item of expenditure family budget
Food 600
Clothing 100
house rent 400
fuel and lighting 100
miscellaneous 300
Total 1500
PH)
Pie chart
Example:
continued
item of expenditure family budget Angel of sector Percent
Food 600 144◦ 40
Clothing 100 24 ◦
6.67
house rent 100 96◦ 26.67
fuel and lighting 100 24◦ 6.67
miscellaneous 300 72◦ 20
Total 1500 360 ◦
100
PH)
Pie Chart Example
PH)
Bar chart
The bar chart (simple, multiple and stacked bar graph) :
used to represent and compare the frequency distribution of
discrete variables and attributes or categorical series.
The vertical or horizontal bins to represent the frequencies of a
distribution. While we draw bar chart, we have to consider the
following points. These are (see the following slide)
Tips for constructing bar chart:
I Whenever possible it is better to construct a bar diagram on a
graph paper
II All bars drawn in any single study should be of the same
III width The different bars should be separated by equal
IV distances
V All the bars should rest on the same line called the base
Whenever possible, it is advisable to draw bars in order of
magnitude PH)
Simple Bar Chart
simple bar Chart: is used to represents data involving only one
variable classified on spatial, quantitative or temporal basis.
Example: Draw simple bar diagram to represent the profits of a
bank for 5 years.
year 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
profit(milions$) 10 12 18 25 42
PH)
Simple bar Chart
Figure:Simple bar chart
PH)
Multiple bar Chart
Multiple bar chart are used two or more sets of inter-related data
are represented (multiple bar diagram facilities comparison
between more than one phenomenon).
Example : Draw a multiple bar chart to represent the import
and export of Canada (values in $) for the years 1991 to
1995.
year imports Exports
1991 7930 4260
1992 8850 5225
1993 9780 6150
1994 11720 7340
1995 12150 8145
PH)
Multiple bar Chart Example
Figure:Multiple bar chart
PH)
Component Bar Chart
Component bar Chart: is used to represent data in which the
total magnitude is divided into different or components
Example : The table below shows the quantity in hundred kgs of
Wheat, Barley and Oats produced on a certain form during the years
1991 to 1994.
Draw stratified bar chart:
year wheat barely oats
1991 34 18 27
1992 43 14 24
1993 43 16 27
1994 45 13 34
PH)
Component bar Chart
Figure:Component bar chart
PH)
Graphical Presentation of data
The histogram,
frequency polygon and
cumulative frequency graph (ogive) are most commonly applied
graphical representation for continuous data.
Procedures for constructing statistical graphs
Draw and label the X and Y axes.
Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies
and label it on the Y axes.
Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive and the mid
points for the frequency polygon on the X axes.
Plot the points.
Draw the bars or lines to connect the points.
PH)
Histogram
I A graph which places the class boundaries on the horizontal
axis and the frequencies on a vertical axis
II Class marks and class limits are some times used as quantity on
the X axes.
III Example: Construct a histogram to by using the following
data
The blood glucose level for 50 patients is shown below. Construct a
frequency distribution for the following data.
PH)
Example
Figure:Grouped Frequency Distributions of 50 Patients glucose
level
PH)
Histogram Graph
Figure:Histogram Graph of 50 Patients Blood glucose
level PH)
Frequency polygon
Line graph of class marks against class frequencies.
To draw a frequency polygon we connect the midpoints of
class boundaries of the histogram by a straight line
PH)
Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)
A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more
than type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries
respectively.
That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis
and the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along
the vertical axis.
The points are joined by a free hand curve.
Example: Draw an ogive curve(less than type) for the above
data.
PH)
Ogive (cummulative less than type)
Figure:Ogive (cumulative less than type)
PH)
Thank you
PH)
