CE 8109

What is Land Surveying?

Surveying is the art and science of :

 taking measurements of the relative

physical positions of points on, or

beneath the surface of the earth
and
 Representing/plot them to a

suitable scale in map / plan/section.

 MAP

 Map is a representation or
abstraction of geographical
reality
 Maps are effective and efficient
means of transferring geospatial
information
Map in analogue form
Map in digital format
 Purpose of Surveying
 To map the earth above and
below sea level

 To prepare navigation charts

(maps)

 To establish property boundaries

of private and public land
 Purpose of Surveying
cont…
 To plan and control various kinds of
engineering projects i.e. highway, etc

 To develop data banks of land use

and natural resources which aid in
developing and managing of our
environment
 Surveying allows us to get accurate
and valid measurements of things
that are on the surface of the earth.
 Purpose of Surveying
cont…

 Before any design, whether

architectural design, engineering
design, etc, there is a need to
have preliminary surveying data
from the field.
 The data help to know the
location, dimensions and
quantities of the required plots
of land.
 Purpose of Surveying
cont…
 The processed data results in
maps such as contour maps
which are used in designing
different structures such as
location of buildings, water
systems, plantations, road
networks, mineral and gas
exploration, layout plans etc and
different landscape designs.
 Purpose of Surveying
cont…
 Hence the knowledge from
spatial data collection, analysis,
manipulation, storage, and
retrieval is required in-order to
handle and manage all
engineering and architectural
information.
 There is a need to know also on
how the designs are implemented
The work of the surveyor
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and
final point locations.

2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements

and recording data in the field.

3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing

calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.

4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to

produce a maps, or charts in the proper form.

5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or

stakes in the proper locations in the field.
 Types of Surveying

a) Geodetic Surveying
 refers to surveys that covers very
larger areas and curvature of the
earth considered.
e.g. whole country, i.e above
25km by 25km
 Reference surface is a sphere or
ellipsoid
 Types of Surveying

a) Geodetic Surveying
 surveying technique to determine
relative positions of widely spaced
points, lengths, and directions which
require the consideration of the size
and shape, and gravity field of the
earth. (Takes the earth’s curvature
into account.)
 It is also called geodetics or geodetics
engineering.
 Types of Surveying-cont-

a) Geodetic Surveying
 Geodetic Engineer performs
geodetic surveys.
 Generally carried out on a
national basis, providing a
framework of control networks of
large magnitude e.g. the network
of survey beacons of the country.
 Types of Surveying

a) Geodetic Surveying
 refers to surveys that covers very
larger areas and curvature of the
earth considered.
e.g. whole country, i.e above
25km by 25km
 Reference surface is a sphere or
ellipsoid
Types of Surveying (cont..)

b) Plane Surveying
 refers to the surveys of small
extent where it is assumed that
the reference surface is a
horizontal plane for the area
concerned
 Curvature of the earth is not
counted
Types of Surveying (cont..)

b) Plane Surveying
 Generally covers small areas
(less than 250 km2).
 Most common method used in
many applications.
 Used by Civil engineers,
Architects, Geomaticians and
civic planners
 Provide details about
topography,
Types of Surveying (cont..)
Help builders to estimate distances,
angles, densities, and land and
ocean depths, areas, volumes etc
with a great deal of precision.
 Depends on visual markers and
individual calculations.
 Use principles of plane geometry,
trigonometry, and algebra to
calculate the relative distance
between points, the density of
certain topographical features like
 Branches of Surveying

a) Mining Surveying:

 It includes all the surveys

forming works on earth and
underground on.
 b) Topographical
Surveying
 Survey for the purpose of
producing plans showing natural
and artificial features of the
earth surface, at large scale. E.g.
height of buildings, valleys, etc.
 Normally used for planners and
engineers
 c) Cadastral Surveying

 Surveys carried out for

producing plans shown property
boundaries
 Cadastral work is usually more
precise than topographical
surveying.
 d) Engineering Surveying

 Includes all surveys which are

carried out before, during and
after planning and construction
of engineering projects.
e) Hydrographic Surveying

 concerned with the bodies of water,

such as harbors, lakes, rivers and
the sea.
 includes all surveys made to

determine the:
 depth of water at different points

 nature of an underwater surface,

 changes in water level or the

discharge of a river or stream.

f) Aerial (Photogrammetric)
Surveying
 utilization of the science of
measurement from stereoscopic
photography to determining the
relative position of the natural
and artificial features of the
earth's surface' and obtaining
elevations above a given datum.
f) Aerial (Photogrammetric)
Surveying
f) Aerial (Photogrammetric)
Surveying
 g) Geodetic surveyin

1. Control Surveys – Establish a network of

horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as
a reference framework for other survey projects.
2. Satellite surveys- Surveys which utilize
satellites in capturing ground information using
various visible and invisible bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
3. Astronomical surveys- Surveys conducted to
determine latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local
time, etc., for various places by observing
heavenly bodies such as sun and stars.
4. Gravimetric surveys - These are surveys
conducted to determine gravity field of the earth
to give information on the structure and
characteristics of the interior of the earth.
 Classification of surveys
(According to
1.
instruments used)
Chain surveys: Types of survey in which only linear
measurements are made with a chain or tape, and no angular
measurements are taken.
2. Compass surveys: The horizontal angles are measured using
magnetic compass. Chain or tape is used for linear
measurements.
3. Plane table surveys: Conducted in the field by determining
the directions of various lines making linear measurements,
and plotting the details on a paper using plane table.
4. Leveling surveys: A survey conducted to determine the
elevations and relative heights of points using level
instrument.
5. Theodolite surveys: This involves measurement of
horizontal and vertical angles using theodolite.
6. Tacheometric surveys: This uses a special instrument called
tacheometer to measure both horizontal and vertical angles
with the help of staff in which, distances can be computed.
7. Photogrammetric surveys: Measurements are made with
the help of photographs.
 Classification of surveys
(According to
instruments used)
9. Total station survey: A total station is a combination of
an electronic theodolite and EDM. Horizontal distances and
horizontal and vertical angles are determined using a total
station.It is used in triangulation surveys and other forms of
surveys needing a very high level of precision. Total station
can display, store and transfer data to the computer for
further processing.
10.Satellite-based instrument survey: The instruments
and methods of remote sensing can be used for surveys
conducted for various purpose. Global positioning system
(GPS), on the other hand, use an array of satellite strategically
palced around the global.
 Classification of surveys
(According to method-
based)
There are different methods of surveying depending upon
the instruments available, the terrain, and the purpose of
the survey. The following are common methods:

1.Triangulation: Method of survey for horizontal control

establishment. A triangle is astable figure, and measuring one of
the sides, known as the base line and the three angles establishes
a triangle on the ground
2.Traversing: Method of control point extension, it can be open,
loop or closed traverse. The sides and their directions are
measured with a compass and chain or a theodolite and tape.
3.Levelling: Levelling is a method of surveying used for
determining the elevations of points. A level is used for this type of
survey.
4.Tacheometry: is a method of surveying where by horizontal
distances and differences in elevation between survey stations are
determined without directly measuring the distances.
5.Trigonometrical levelling: In trigonometric levelling, distances
and elevations are determined by measuring vertical angles on
staves
 Classification of surveys
(According to purpose-
based)
1. Reconnaissance: conducted to get idea about the terrain
and any special of difficult features that ay be encountered
during a regular survey.
2. Preliminary survey: This is more detailed in its scope.It
locates all the prominent features of the terrain as well as
any particular features to be presented on a map.
3. Engineering survey: detailed surveys required to locate
engineering projects such as roads, railways, factories etc.
4. Geographical survey: are conducted to collect data for
preparation of geographical maps
5. Mine surveys: Both surface and underground. For mineral
exploration.
6. Route survey: Conducted for locating road or railway
networks.
7. Location survey: Conducted to locate points on the ground
based on the plans prepared.
8. Geological survey: Are for economic importance, as both
surface and sub-surface survey are conducted to locate ore
 Classification of surveys
(According to purpose-
9. Defense survey: forbased)
military establishment to locate
strategic positions in the enemy area.
 Classification of surveys
(According to Place-
based)
1. Land survey: are done on land to prepare plans and
maps of a given area. Such survey are conducted for the
purpose of partitioning land, determining their areas,
locating boundary of properties etc
2. Hydrographic survey: Deals with water bodies such as
lakes, rivers, streams and coastal areas. The objective is to
get data to desing navigation systems, determining
shorelines, desing of structures built in water or along
shore lines.
3. Aerial survey: done for aircraft, which take photographs
of the surface of the earth in overlapping strips of land.
4. Underground survey : Done in the case of mines and
tunnels. These are done by transferring ground points to
the underground level and conducting surveys of tunnels,
caves, mines etc.
 Main Principles of Survey

 –Control
 Economy of accuracy
 Consistency
 Independent Checks and
 Safe guarding
 Revision
 Control

 Establishment of careful measured

and adjusted framework free from
error
 subsequent work is based on this
framework by using less elaborate
methods, and adjusted to it
 • working from the whole to the part
 Control (con’t)

Purpose of the control

 prevent errors from accumulating

and magnifying
 blunders may be avoided and

errors controlled and localized, so

as to achieve consistency and
accuracy
 must be fully applied to all

surveys.
 Economy of accuracy
 Aim in achieving a specific accuracy
of work within the time and money
 time and cost required are greatly

dependent on the accuracy of the

survey
– greater accuracy requiring more
refined, expensive and time-
consuming, methodologies/higher
instrumentation
 Economy of accuracy
(con’t)
 prior to any survey project, it is
essential to weigh the accuracy which
it is hope to attain
against the time and money available

 every survey must be carried out by

using methods which will achieve the
accuracy required without wasting
time or money on unnecessary work or
over-precise methods.
 Consistency

 the precision of different parts of a

survey within a properly controlled
framework should be consistent
 final accuracy of a survey is
dependent upon the accuracy of the
overall controlling framework
together with the precision to which
the various parts have been measured
 subsequent survey can never exceed
the accuracy of the controlling
framework
 Independent Checks

 If mistakes in field measurements and

calculations cannot be detected in
time, a considerable amount of
subsequent work will be wasted
 every survey operation should be
subjected to a check, if possible, a
completely independent check, and
not repetition of the operation
 Safe guarding

 The surveyor of today is the trustee

for the surveyor of tomorrow.
 To ensure that survey work will
remain useful for the future, the
surveyor must take the following
precautions:
 all the work must be recorded
in a legible and systematic manner
and the records stored in a manner
that allows easy future reference.
 Safe guarding (con’t)

 All survey marks in the field must

be as permanent as possible and
easily replaced from other
witness marks.

 All records and documents must

be kept safely to guard against
their loss in accidents.
 Safe guarding (con’t)

 desirable to duplicate important

records so that a spare copy may
be kept in a separate place, i.e.
in a separate building.
 Revision

 Make your work more useful for

other purposes and for a future
work and revision of map for the
area
Stages in Land Surveying
1) Reconnaissance + Searching

-field visit and inspection which the

surveyors makes in the area he is to survey
– importance of reconnaissance:
 planning the sequence of work,
 deciding on the methods and
instrumentation to be adopted,
 Know the nature of the terrain and
 purpose of the survey and accuracy
required
 Stages in Land Surveying
(con’t)
2) Field work
– making of the necessary
measurements in in the field
– method adopted should achieve
results to the required standard of
accuracy
 Booking

– recording the observations in a

legible and systematic manner
 Stages in Land Surveying
(con’t)
 Computation
– usually performed in the office, or
field office, and consists of making
numerical calculations necessary
to put the results of the field
measurements into a form suitable
for plotting (connectivity table) or
for other purposes which the
survey may require, i.e. setting out.
 Stages in Land Surveying
(con’t)
3) Presentation/Plotting
– drawing of a plan or map showing
the observations and
computations.
– Neatness and accuracy are
essential for acceptable plotting.
 Fair-drawing or Editing

– in manual method, this operation

involves inking in and finishing
the plan after plotting.
 General Stages in Land
Surveying (con’t)
 Record Keeping
– the filing and recording of all
document concerned with the
survey for future reference
– must be carried out in a
systematic manner which
ensures simple, speedy, future
accessibility.
 Surveying Measurements
and Units

 Linear measurement
 Angular measurement

 Pressure

 Temperature

 Gravity

 time

.
 Linear Measurement

 Can be slope distance, horizontal

distance, or vertical distance
 Internationale, abbreviated to
SI. basic units of prime interest are: metres (m)
1 m = 100 millimetres (mm)
1 m = 10-3 kilometres (km)
1 m2 = 100 mm2
100m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
100 m2 = 1 square kilometre (km2)
volumes m3 or mm3
 Angular measurement
 Can be angle or azimuth/bearing
 UNITS: sexagesimal, centesimal
and radians
 Sexagesimal units are used to
 measure angles in degree (°),
minutes (') and seconds (") of arc
 for example 1° = 60' and 1' = 60"

 angle is written as, say, 125° 46'

35".
 Angular measurement
cont…
 Centesimal system measures in
grads,
 A radian is that angle subtended at
the centre of a circle by an arc on
the circumference equal in length
to the radius of the circle,
for example
90 degree = 100 grads
360 degree = 400 grads
2π rad = 360° = 400 grads
 Angular measurement
cont…
 to transform degrees to radians, multiply
by π/180°
 to transform radians to degrees, multiply
by 180°/π
– 1 rad = 57.2957795° = 63.6619972 grads
 A factor commonly used in surveying to
change angles from seconds of arc to
radians is :
– α rad = α"/206 265
 206 265 is the number of seconds in a
radian.
 Pressure
 Used in barometric levelling
pressure = force/area

 Pressure changes with height, hence

pressure is a function of height

 Normally used in mountainous areas

 UNITS: bar
 Temperature

 Used in standardisation of tapes and

for meteorological corrections of EDM

 UNITS : centigrade/celcius scale

 Gravity
 Used in determination of the shape of
the earth (Geoid)

 Correction of astronomical
observations and geodetic observation

 UNITS: gal (mostly used milligal)

 Time

 Used in timed observations (mostly

astronomical, especially in longitude
determination)

 UNITS: Hrs, Min, Sec

 Basic characteristics
of map
 Provide two fundamental element of reality

 Map are reduction of reality

 All map involve transformation of 3D-2D x,y

coordinates

 All map are abstraction of reality

 All map portray data using geographical symbols

 Classification of maps

Map are classified based on the following

factors

 Scale

 Contents

 Data sources

 purpose
 Types of maps

Map are classified based on the following

factors

 Scale

 Contents

 Data sources

 purpose
 MAP SCALE

 Scale is the ratio of map distance to

the corresponding ground distance

MAP
DISTANCE

GROUND DISTANCE
 Characteristics of
scale

 Should be always constant

allover the map

 Scale should be in the same

unit
 Map Scale Representation

 Numerical ratio or representative

scale
1:1000
 Literally or statement scale
1cm represents 5km
 Scale bar
1000 0 1 2 3 4
meters 500 kilometres
 Grouping of scale

 Very large scale

1:1000 – 1:5000
 Large scale
1:5000 – 1:25000
 Medium Scale
1:25000 – 1:100000
 Small scale
1:100000 – 1:1000000