Module 4

Combustion in IC Engines
Introduction to Combustion in I.C. Engines
Combustion is a chemical process in which a fuel reacts with an
oxidizing agent (typically oxygen) to release energy in the form of heat.
It is an exothermic reaction that results in the formation of new
products, usually gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor
(H₂O), along with energy.
The general combustion reaction of a hydrocarbon fuel (like gasoline)
can be represented as:
Fuel+O2→CO2+H2O+Energy
In engines, combustion efficiency is influenced by factors such as the
air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, and fuel quality.
Theoretical Air in IC Engine Combustion
Theoretical Air (Stoichiometric Air)
Theoretical air refers to the exact amount of air required to completely burn a given
quantity of fuel. In this condition, all the carbon in the fuel is converted to carbon
dioxide (CO₂), and all the hydrogen to water vapor (H₂O), with no unburned fuel or
excess oxygen left over.
The theoretical air is determined by the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (A/F ratio). For a
hydrocarbon fuel, this is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that allows for complete
combustion.
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio:
The ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel required for complete combustion. For
gasoline, this ratio is approximately 14.7:1 (14.7 parts air to 1 part fuel by mass).
Reaction Example (for octane, C₈H₁₈):
C8H18+12.5O2→8CO2+9H2O
Achieving perfect combustion with theoretical air is challenging due to fuel-air
mixing inefficiencies and the complex nature of combustion.
Excess Air in IC Engine Combustion
Excess Air
Excess air is the additional air supplied beyond the theoretical amount needed for
complete combustion. Supplying excess air helps to ensure that all the fuel is
completely combusted, even if the air-fuel mixture is not perfectly uniform.
Why is Excess Air Needed?
• Ensures complete combustion, preventing the formation of unburned
hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO).
• Reduces the risk of incomplete combustion, which can lead to the production
of soot, CO, and other pollutants.
Air-Fuel Ratio with Excess Air:
When excess air is used, the air-fuel ratio is higher than the stoichiometric ratio. For
example, with 20% excess air, the air-fuel ratio becomes 1.2 times the theoretical
A/F ratio.
Example: If the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.7:1, with 20% excess air, it becomes:
14.7×1.2=17.64
Equivalence Ratio (Φ)
• Equivalence Ratio (Φ):
Φ

• ​If Φ = 1, the engine operates with the stoichiometric air-fuel mixture.

• If Φ < 1, there is excess air (lean mixture).
• If Φ > 1, there is a deficiency of air (rich mixture).
Excess Air Factor (λ)

• Excess Air Factor (λ):

λ
• ​If λ = 1, the mixture is stoichiometric
• If λ < 1, rich mixture.
• If λ > 1, lean mixture.
Percentage of Excess Air
Percentage of Excess Air = x 100

Percentage of Excess Air = (λ -1) x 100

Impact on Combustion and Engine Performance
Theoretical Air:
• In theory, perfect combustion can be achieved, leading to complete
conversion of fuel into energy. However, in practice, combustion rarely
occurs with theoretical air due to uneven mixing and other factors.
Excess Air:
• Advantages: Ensures complete combustion, reducing pollutants like
CO and unburned hydrocarbons.
• Lowers the combustion temperature, which helps to reduce nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions.
• Disadvantages: Too much excess air can reduce the thermal efficiency
of the engine, as the excess air absorbs some of the heat, lowering the
combustion temperature and power output.
Fuels and Combustion
Combustion of Carbon with Oxygen
Carbon (C) reacts with oxygen (O₂) to form carbon dioxide (CO₂) during
complete combustion.
C+O2​→CO2
1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to form 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
12 C+32 O2​→44 CO2

C+ O2​→ CO2

C+ O2​→ CO2
1 kg of Carbon requires (8/3) kg of oxygen and produces (11/3) kg of carbon
dioxide
Combustion of Hydrogen with Oxygen

H2+O2​→ H2O

2H2+O2​→2H2O

H2+O2​→H2O
1 mole of hydrogen reacts with half mole of oxygen to form 1 mole of water
2H2+O2​→18 H2O

H2+O2​→9 H2O

H2+8 O2​→ 9 H2O

1 kg of Hydrogen requires 8kg of oxygen and produces 9kg of water
Atmospheric Air Composition
Volume Percentage Gas Mass Percentage (%)
Gas
(%)
78.09 Nitrogen (N₂) 75.47
Nitrogen (N₂)
Oxygen (O₂) 20.95 Oxygen (O₂) 23.2
Argon (Ar) 0.93 Argon (Ar) 1.28

CarbonDioxide (CO₂) 0.04 (varies slightly) CarbonDioxide (CO₂) 0.05

Trace Gases (e.g., 0.003 Trace Gases (e.g., 0.01

Neon, Helium, Neon, Helium,
Methane) Methane)

By Volume – 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen

By Mass - 77% Nitrogen and 23 % Oxygen
Ignition Limits
Ignition limits correspond to those mixture ratios at lean and rich ends
where the heat released by spark is no longer sufficient to initiate
combustion. For most hydrocarbon fuels, the stoichiometric air fuel
ratio is about 14.8 1. The ignition limits lie between (A/F) 30 : 1 and 7:
1.
Combustion in SI engine
Combustion in SI engine is divided
into two types: Normal (knock free)
and Abnormal (knocking). Theoretical
diagram of pressure crank angle
diagram is shown in figure. (a-b) is
compression process, (b-c) is
combustion process and (c-d) is an
expansion process. In an ideal cycle it
can be seen from the diagram, the
entire pressure rise during combustion
takes place at constant volume i.e., at
TDC. However, in actual cycle this
does not happen.
Richard Theory of Combustion
Sir Ricardo, known as Father of engine research describes the
combustion process as

1. Growth and development of a self-propagating nucleus flame.

(Ignition lag)

2. Spread of flame through the combustion chamber

Three Stage of Combustion
There are three stages of
combustion in SI Engine as
shown
1. Ignition lag stage
2. Flame propagation stage
3. After burning stage
Ignition Lag
Time interval between instant of spark and instant where there is a noticeable rise
in pressure due to combustion. This time lag is called Ignition Lag.

Ignition lag is the time interval in the process of chemical reaction during which
molecules get heated up to self ignition temperature, get ignited and produce a
self propagating nucleus of flame.

Ignition lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle θ1. The period of
ignition lag is shown by path (A-B). Ignition lag is very small angle and lies
between 0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds. An ignition lag of 0.002 seconds
corresponds to 35 deg crank rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM.
Angle of advance increase with the speed.

This is a chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and
pressure, proportions of exhaust gas and rate of oxidation or burning
Flame propagation stage
Once the flame is formed at “B”, it should be self sustained and must be
able to propagate through the mixture. This is possible when the rate of heat
generation by burning is greater than heat lost by flame to surrounding.

After the point “B”, the flame propagation is abnormally low at the
beginning as heat lost is more than heat generated. Therefore pressure rise
is also slow as mass of mixture burned is small. Therefore, it is necessary to
provide angle of advance (30-35) degrees, if the peak pressure to be
attained (5-10) degrees after TDC.

The time required for crank to rotate through an angle θ2 is known as

combustion period during which propagation of flame takes place.
After burning
Combustion will not stop at point “C” but continue after attaining peak
pressure and this combustion is known as after burning. This generally
happens when the rich mixture is supplied to engine.
Spark Ignition of the Mixture
 Theories of SI Engine Combustion
1. Turbulent Flame Theory
• Laminar flame transition to turbulent flame: In an SI engine, turbulence in the combustion chamber is
critical for increasing flame speed. High turbulence improves air-fuel mixing and flame propagation.
• Turbulent flame velocity: Much higher than laminar flame velocity, which allows for faster combustion.
2. Flame Kernel Theory
• Formation of flame kernel: At the moment of spark ignition, a small flame kernel forms around the spark
plug. The success of combustion largely depends on the growth and stability of this flame kernel.
• Critical size: If the kernel fails to grow beyond a certain critical size, combustion cannot be sustained.
3. Quenching Theory
• Flame quenching near walls: The flame can extinguish prematurely near cooler cylinder walls due to heat
loss, a process known as quenching. The quenching distance (the minimum distance between the wall and
the flame that allows continued combustion) is crucial for proper combustion.
4. Pressure Rise and Combustion Speed Theory
• Relation between pressure and flame speed: The rate of pressure rise in the combustion chamber is linked
to the speed of flame propagation. Faster flame propagation leads to a quicker pressure rise and vice versa.
• Burn duration: Shorter burn durations indicate more efficient combustion cycles, leading to better engine
performance.
Factors affecting ignition lag
A:F ratio: Maximum power is produced at slightly richer
mixture. At maximum power, heat generated is maximum,
which will reduce Ignition-lag timing.
Fuel: Chemical composition and nature of fuel plays vital role in
combustion. The fuel with higher self-ignition temperature has longer
ignition lag period.
Initial temperature and pressure: As temperature and
pressure increases reaction becomes fast which reduces
ignition lag. Any factor which increases in-cylinder
temperature or pressure will lead to decrease the ignition lag
period. These factors may be supercharging, increasing
compression ratio, retarding –the spark timing, etc.
Factors affecting ignition lag
Electrode gap: In a spark plug, distance between
positive and negative electrode is known as
electrode. The effect of electrode gap on mixture
strength for different compression is shown in the
figure. As the electrode gap increases, higher
voltage is required to produce the spark.

Turbulence: Turbulence means irregular motion of the charge inside the

combustion chamber. Turbulence is directly proportional to engine speed.
Ignition lag is not much affected by increasing the turbulence. So, engine
speed does not affect the ignition lag measured in milli seconds but
ignition lag in crank angle increases with speed. Therefore, angle of
advance for spark timing increases with increasing speed and decreases
with decreasing speed to maintain a constant ignition lag.
Factors Affecting the Flame Propagation
Rate of flame propagation affects the combustion process in SI engines.
Higher flame propagation velocities can achieve higher combustion
efficiency and fuel economy. Flame velocities for most of fuel range
between [10-30] (m/second).
The factors that affect the flame propagations are:
1. Air fuel ratio
2. Compression ratio
3. Load on engine
4. Turbulence and engine speed
5. Other factors
Air fuel ratio

• The maximum flame speed for all

hydrocarbon fuels occurs at nearly 10%
rich mixture.
• Lean mixture releases less heat
resulting lower flame temperature and
lower flame speed.
• Very rich mixture results incomplete
combustion and also results in
production of less heat and flame speed
remains low.
Compression Ratio
• The higher compression ratio
increases the pressure and temperature
of the mixture and also decreases the
concentration of residual gases. All
these factors reduce the ignition lag
and help to speed up the second phase
of combustion.
• Higher compression ratio increases the
surface to volume ratio and thereby
increases the part of the mixture which
after-burns in the third phase.
Engine Load
• With increase in load, the cycle pressures increase and the flame speed
also increases.
• In S.I. engine, the power developed by an engine is controlled by
throttling. At lower load and higher throttle, final pressure of the
mixture after compression decrease and mixture is also diluted by the
more residual gases. This reduces the flame propagation and prolongs
the ignition lag.
• This difficulty can be partly overcome by providing rich mixture at
part loads.
Turbulence
• Flame speed is directly proportional to the turbulence of the mixture. This is because,
the turbulence increases the mixing and heat transfer coefficient or heat transfer rate
between the burned and unburned mixture.
• The turbulence of the mixture can be increased at the end of compression by suitable
design of the combustion chamber (geometry of cylinder head and piston crown).
• Insufficient turbulence provides low flame velocity and incomplete combustion and
reduces the power output.
• Excessive turbulence is also not desirable as it increases the combustion rapidly and
leads to detonation. Excessive turbulence causes to cool the flame generated and flame
propagation is reduced.
• Moderate turbulence is always desirable as it accelerates the chemical reaction, reduces
ignition lag, increases flame propagation and even allows weak mixture to burn
efficiently.
Engine Speed
• The turbulence of the mixture increases with an increase in engine
speed. For this reason, the flame speed almost increases linearly with
engine speed.
• If the engine speed is doubled, flame to traverse the combustion
chamber is halved. Double the original speed and half the original
time give the same number of crank degrees for flame propagation.
The crank angle required for the flame propagation will remain almost
constant at all speeds.
Engine Size
• Engines of similar design generally run at the same piston speed. This is achieved
by using small engines having larger RPM and larger engines having smaller
RPM.
• Due to same piston speed, the inlet velocity, degree of turbulence and flame speed
are nearly same in similar engines regardless of the size.
• Small engines the flame travel is small and in large engines large.
• If the engine size is doubled the time required for propagation of flame through
combustion space is also doubled. But with lower RPM of large engines the time
for flame propagation in terms of crank would be nearly same as in small engines.
• Crank degrees required for flame travel will be about the same irrespective of
engine size.
KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE
• Knocking is due to auto ignition of end portion of unburned charge in
combustion chamber.
• As the normal flame proceeds across the chamber, pressure and
temperature of unburned charge increase due to compression by
burned portion of charge. This unburned compressed charge may auto
ignite under certain temperature condition and establish a new flame
front in the opposite direction of the normal flame front. Energy
releases at a very rapid rate.
• Collision of two flame fronts and rapid release of energy during auto
ignition causes a high-pressure differential in combustion chamber and
a high-pressure wave is released from auto ignition region. The motion
of high-pressure compression waves inside the cylinder causes
vibration of engine parts and pinging noise and it is known as
knocking or detonation. This pressure frequency or vibration
frequency in SI engine can be up to 5000 Cycles per second.
KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE
KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE
Ill Effects of Knocking
1. Noise and Roughness: Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and
pressure waves. These waves which vibrates back and forth across the
cylinder. The presence of vibratory motion causes crankshaft
vibrations and the engine runs rough.
2. Mechanical Damage: High pressure waves generated during knocking
can increase rate of wear and metal erosion to the parts of combustion
chamber.
3. Detonation is very dangerous in engines having high noise level. In
small engines the knocking noise is easily detected and the corrective
measures can be taken.
4. Carbon deposits: Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.
5. Increase in heat transfer: Knocking is accompanied by an increase in
the rate of heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls.
AUTO IGINITION
A mixture of fuel and air can ignite spontaneously
in the absence of flame to initiate the combustion or
self-ignition. This type of self-ignition in the
absence of flame is known as Auto-Ignition.
The temperature at which the self-ignition takes
place is known as self-igniting temperature.
Auto-ignition leads to abnormal combustion known
as detonation which is undesirable because its bad
effect on the engine performance and life.
Knocking puts a limit on the compression ratio at
which an engine can be operated.
Auto-ignition occurs only when the mixture stays at
a temperature equal to or higher than the self-
ignition temperature for a “finite time”. This time is
known as delay period or reaction time for auto
ignition.
PRE –IGINITION
Pre-ignition is the ignition of the homogeneous mixture of charge as it
comes in contact with hot surfaces, in the absence of spark .
Auto ignition may overheat the spark plug, exhaust valve, carbon
deposits on engine walls, etc and it remains so hot that its temperature
is sufficient to ignite the charge in next cycle during the compression
stroke before spark occurs and this causes the pre-ignition of the charge.
Pre-ignition is also caused by persistent detonating pressure shockwaves
scoring away the stagnant gases which normally protect the combustion
chamber walls. The resulting increased heat flow through the walls,
raises the surface temperature of any protruding poorly cooled part of
the chamber, and provides a focal point for pre-ignition.
Hazardous Effects of Pre-Ignition
• It increase the tendency of denotation in the engine
• It increases heat transfer to cylinder walls because high temperature
gas remains in contact with for a longer time
• Pre-ignition reduce the speed and power output
• Pre-ignition may cause seizer in engines
EFFECT OF ENGINE VARIABLES ON
THE KNOCKING
• The various engine variables affecting knocking can be classified as:
• Temperature factors
• Density factors
• Time factors
• Composition factors
TEMPERATURE FACTORS
Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the possibility
of knock in the SI engine.
RAISING THE COMPRESSION RATIO: Increasing the compression
ratio increases both the temperature and pressure (density of the unburned
mixture). Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of the end gas,
which in turn increases the tendency to knock.
SUPERCHARGING: It also increases both temperature and density, which
increase the knocking tendency of engine
COOLANT TEMPERATURE: Delay period decreases with increase of
coolant temperature , decreased delay period increase the tendency to knock
TEMPERATURE OF THE CYLINDER AND COMBUSTION
CHAMBER WALLS: The temperature of the end gas depends on the
design of combustion chamber. Sparking plug and exhaust valve are two
hottest parts in the combustion chamber and uneven temperature leads to
pre-ignition and hence the knocking.
DENSITY FACTORS
Increasing the density of unburnt mixture will increase the possibility of
knock in the engine.
• Increased compression ratio increase the density.
• Increasing the load opens the throttle valve more and thus the density.
• Supercharging increase the density of the mixture.
• Increasing the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during the
cycle.
TIME FACTOR
Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignition conditions increase the
possibility of knock
Flame travel distance: If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of knocking is also
more. This problem can be solved by combustion chamber design, spark plug location and engine size.
Compact combustion chamber will have better anti-knock characteristics, since the flame travel and
combustion time will be shorter. Further, if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the combustion
rate is high and consequently combustion time is further reduced; this further reduces the tendency to
knock.
Location of sparkplug: A spark plug that is centrally located in the combustion chamber has minimum
tendency to knock, as the flame travel is minimum. The flame travel can be reduced by using two or
more spark plugs.
Location of exhaust valve: The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug so that it is not
in the end gas region; otherwise, there will be a tendency to knock.
Engine size: Large engines have a greater knocking tendency because flame requires a longer time to
travel across the combustion chamber. In SI engine therefore, generally limited to 100mm
Turbulence of mixture: Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame speed and hence
increases the tendency to knock. Turbulence depends on the design of combustion chamber and one
engine speed.
COMPOSITION
Molecular Structure: The structure of the fuel molecule has enormous
effect on knocking tendency. Increasing the carbon-chain increases the
knocking tendency and centralizing the carbon atoms decreases the
knocking tendency. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less knocking
tendency than saturated hydrocarbons.
Fuel-air ratio: When the mixture is nearly 10% richer than
stoichiometric ignition lag of the end gas is minimum. By making the
mixture leaner or richer the tendency to knock is decreased.
Humidity of air: Increasing atmospheric humidity decreases the
tendency to knock by decreasing the reaction time of the fuel.
Summary of Engine Variables Affecting Knocking
Sl. Engine Variable Effect on Knocking
No
1 Compression Higher compression ratios increase the tendency to knock by raising cylinder pressure and temperature.
Ratio
2 Air-Fuel Ratio A lean mixture is less prone to knocking, while a rich mixture increases knocking.
3 Spark Timing Advanced spark timing increases the risk of knocking, as it raises pressure and temperature before the piston
reaches top dead center (TDC).
4 Engine Load Higher engine loads increase the likelihood of knocking, as more fuel is burned, raising the temperature and
pressure.
5 Engine Speed Lower engine speeds allow more time for preflame reactions, increasing the tendency to knock. Higher speeds
can reduce knocking by reducing reaction time
6 Inlet Air Higher inlet air temperature increases the likelihood of knocking due to higher initial temperatures inside the
Temperature combustion chamber.
7 Octane Rating Fuels with higher octane ratings resist knocking better as they have higher resistance to auto-ignition

8 Combustion Designs that promote good turbulence and faster flame speed reduce knocking. Poor designs with hot spots
Chamber Design can increase the chance of knock.
9 Cylinder Pressure Higher peak cylinder pressures increase the tendency to knock as auto-ignition can occur more easily.
10 Supercharging Increases the cylinder pressures increase the tendency to knock
11 Engine Cooling Better cooling reduces cylinder temperature and helps minimize knocking
Summary of Engine Variables Affecting Knocking
OCTANE Rating
The property of fuel that describes how fuel will or will nor self ignite is
called the OCTANE NUMBER.
It is defined as the percentage of Isooctane by volume in a mixture of
Isooctane and n-heptane, which exactly matches the knocking tendency
of a given fuel, in a standard fuel under given standard operating
conditions.
Isooctane (C8H18) which has a very high resistance to knock and therefore
it is arbitrarily assigned a rating of (100 octane number). N-heptane (C7H16)
which is very prone to knock and therefore given a zero value.
For example: Octane number 80 means that the fuel has same knocking
tendency as mixture of 80% isooctane and 20% n-heptane (by volume basis).
A fuel having an octane number of 110 means fuel has the same tendency to
resist as a mixture of 10 cc of Tetra ethyl lead (TEL) in one U.S gallon of
Isooctane.
SI Engine Combustion Chamber
The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an
important influence on the engine performance and its knocking
tendencies.
The design involves
• the shape of the combustion chamber,
• the location of spark plug and
• the location of inlet and exhaust valves.
The important requirements of an SI engine combustion chamber are
• to provide high power output with minimum octane requirement,
• high thermal efficiency and
• smooth engine operation.
SI Engine Combustion Chamber
Smooth engine operation: The aim of any engine design is to have a smooth
operation and a good economy. These can be achieved by the following:
a. Moderate Rate of Pressure Rise. Limiting the rate of pressure rise as well
as the position of the peak pressure with respect to TDC affect smooth
engine operation.
b. Reducing the Possibility of Knocking. Reduction in the possibility of
knocking in an engine can be achieved by
(i) Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating the
spark plug and also by avoiding pockets of stagnant charge.
(ii) Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and of exhaust valve area
which are the source of hot spots in the majority of the combustion
chambers.
(iii) Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge, through
application of a high surface to volume ratio in that part where the last
portion of the charge burns.
SI Engine Combustion Chamber
High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency: This can be achieved by
considering the following factors:
High degree of turbulence: Turbulence can be induced by inlet flow
configuration and squish.
• Squish is the rapid radial movement of the gas trapped in between the piston
and the cylinder head into the bowl or the dome.
High Volumetric Efficiency: More charge enters during the suction
stroke, results in an increased power output. This can be achieved by
providing ample clearance around the valve heads, large diameter valves
and straight passages with minimum pressure drop.
Improved anti-knock characteristics: Improved anti-knock
characteristics permits the use of a higher compression ratio resulting in
increased output and efficiency.
SI Engine Combustion Chamber
Compact Combustion Chamber: Reduces heat loss during
combustion and increases the thermal efficiency.

Types of Combustion Chambers

Different types combustion chambers have been developed over a
period of time.
• T-Head Type
• L-Head Type
• I-Head Type or Overhead Valve
• F-Head Type
T-Head Type
The T-head combustion chambers were
used in the early stage of engine
development.
Since the distance across the combustion
chamber is very long, knocking tendency
is high in this type of engines.
This configuration provides two valves
on either side of the cylinder, requiring
two camshafts. From the manufacturing
point of view, providing two camshafts is
a disadvantage.
L-Head Type
A modification of the T-head type of combustion
chamber is the L-head type which provides the two
valves on the same side of the cylinder and the
valves are operated by a single camshaft.
The main objectives of the Ricardo's turbulent head
design to obtain fast flame speed and reduced knock
I Head Type or Overhead Valve
In which both the valves are located on the
cylinder head.
The overhead valve engine is superior to a side
valve or an L-head engine at high compression
ratios.
Some of the important characteristics of this type
of valve arrangement are:
 less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat
loss
 less flame travel length and hence greater freedom
from knock
 higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or
valve lifts
F-Head Type
• The F-head type of valve arrangement is a
compromise between L-head and I-head types.
• Combustion chambers in which one valve is in
the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder
block are known as F-head combustion chambers
• Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in the
head and inlet valve in the cylinder block.
• The main disadvantage of this type is that the
inlet valve and the exhaust valve are separately
actuated by two cams mounted on to camshafts
driven by the crankshaft through gears.
Modern Combustion Chambers

Pent Roof Combustion Hemi Combustion Tumble and Swirl

Chamber Chamber Combustion Chambers
 CI
Engine
Combustion
Introduction
• Combustion in CI engines differ from SI engine due to the basic fact that
CI engine combustion is unassisted combustion occurring on its’ own.
• In CI engine the fuel is injected into combustion space after the
compression of air is completed.
• Due to excessively high temperature and pressure of air the fuel when
injected in atomized form gets burnt on its’ own and burning of fuel is
continued till the fuel is injected.
• Theoretically this injection of fuel and its’ burning should occur
simultaneously up to the cut-off point, but this does not occur in actual CI
engine.
Stages of Combustion

1) Ignition Delay Period

• Physical delay
• Chemical Delay
2) Uncontrolled Combustion
3) Controlled Combustion
4) After Burning
Stages of Combustion
Ignition Delay Period
• Injection of fuel in atomized form is initiated into the combustion space containing
compressed air.
• Fuel upon injection does not get burnt immediately instead some time is required for
preparation before start of combustion.
• Fuel droplet injected into high temperature air first gets transformed into vapour
(gaseous form) .
• Subsequently, if temperature inside is greater than self ignition temperature at
respective pressure then ignition gets set.
• Thus, the delay in start of ignition may be said to occur due to ‘physical delay’ i.e.
time consumed in transformation from liquid droplet into gaseous form,
and‘chemical delay’ i.e. time consumed in preparation for setting up of chemical
reaction (combustion)
Stages of Combustion
Ignition Delay Period
• The duration of ignition delay depends upon fuel characteristic, compression ratio
(i.e. pressure and temperature after compression), fuel injection, ambient air
temperature, speed of engine, and geometry of combustion chamber etc.
• Ignition delay is inevitable stage and in order to accommodate it, the fuel injection
is advanced by about 20º before TDC. Ignition delay is shown by a – b in Fig.
• Fuel injection begins at ‘a’ and ignition begins at ‘b’. Theoretically, this ignition
delay should be as small as possible.
Stages of Combustion
Uncontrolled Combustion
• During the ignition delay period also the injection of fuel is continued as it
has begun at point ‘a’ and shall continue upto the point of cut-off.
• For the duration in which preparation for ignition is made, the continuous
fuel injection results in accumulation of fuel in combustion space.
• The moment when ignition just begins, if the sustainable flame front is
established then this accumulated fuel also gets burnt rapidly.
• This burning of accumulated fuel occurs in such a manner that combustion
process becomes uncontrolled resulting into steep pressure rise as shown
from ‘b’ to ‘c’.
• The uncontrolled burning continues till the collected fuel gets burnt.
• During this ‘uncontrolled combustion’ phase, the pressure rise is abrupt and
combustion is termed as ‘abnormal combustion’.
Stages of Combustion
Uncontrolled Combustion
• Thus, it is obvious that ‘uncontrolled combustion’ depends upon the
‘ignition delay’ period as during ignition delay itself the accumulation
of unburnt fuel occurs and its’ burning results in steep pressure rise.
• Hence in order to have minimum uncontrolled combustion the ignition
delay should be as small as possible.
• During this uncontrolled combustion phase about one-third of total
fuel heat is released.
Stages of Combustion
Controlled Combustion
• After the ‘uncontrolled combustion’ is over then the rate of burning
matches with rate of fuel injection and the combustion is termed as
‘controlled combustion’.
• Controlled combustion is shown between ‘c’ to ‘d’ and during this
phase maximum of heat gets evolved in controlled manner.
• In controlled combustion phase rate of combustion can be directly
regulated by the rate of fuel injection i.e. through fuel injector.
• Controlled combustion phase has smooth pressure variation and
maximum temperature is attained during this period.
• It is seen that about two-third of total fuel heat is released during this
phase.
Stages of Combustion
After Burning
• After controlled combustion, the residual if any gets burnt and the
combustion is termed as ‘after burning’.
• This after burning may be there due to fuel particles residing in remote
position in combustion space where flame front could not reach.
• ‘After burning’ is spread over 60 – 70º of crank angle rotation and
occurs even during expansion stroke.
Flame Propagation in CI Engine
Combustion in CI Engine
Abnormal Combustion/ Knocking
• Combustion generally becomes abnormal in CI engines when the
ignition delay is too large resulting into large uncontrolled combustion
and zig-zag pressure rise.
• Abnormal combustion in CI engines may also be termed as
‘knocking’ in engines and can be felt by excessive vibrations,
excessive noise, excessive heat release, pitting of cylinder head and
piston head etc.
• In order to control the knocking some additives are put in CI engine
fuel so as to reduce its’ self ignition temperature and accelerate
ignition process.
• Also, the combustion chambers are properly designed so as to have
reduced physical and chemical delay.
Factors affecting Delay Period in CI Engines
Compression Ratio
Increase in CR increases the temperature of air. Autoignition temperature decreases
with increased density. Both these reduce the delay period(DP).
Engine Power Output
With an Increase in engine power, the operating temperature increases. Delay period
decreases
Engine Speed
Delay period decreases with increasing engine speed, as the temperature and pressure
of compressed air rises at high engine speeds.
Injection Timing
The temperature and pressure of air at the beginning of injection are lower for higher
injection advance. The Delay Period increases with increase in injection advance or
longer injection timing. The optimum angle of injection is 20° BTDC
Atomization of fuel
Higher fuel injection pressures increase the degree of atomization. The fineness of
atomization reduces the Delay Period due to higher A/V ratio of the spray droplets.
Factors affecting Delay Period in CI Engines
Injection Pressure
Increase injection pressure reduces the auto ignition temperature and hence
decreases Delay Period.
Intake Temperature
High intake temperature increase the air temperature after compression, which
reduces Delay Period.
Engine Size
Large engines operate at lower speeds, thus increasing the DP in terms of crank
angle.
Cetane No.
Fuels with high cetane no. Have lower Delay Period.
F/A ratio
With increasing F/A ratio, operating temperature increases and thus DP decreases.
Factors affecting Delay Period in CI Engines
Method of Controlling Knock
Using a better fuel:
Higher CN fuel has lower delay period and reduces knocking tendency.
Ignition accelerators:
Cetane Number can be increased by adding chemical called dopes.
The two chemical dopes are used are ethyl-nitrate and amyle - nitrate in concentration
of 8.8 gm/Litre and 7.7 gm/Litre.
But these two increase the NOx emissions.
Controlling the Rate of Fuel Supply:
By injecting less fuel in the beginning and then more fuel amount in the combustion
chamber detonation can be controlled to a certain extent.
Knock reducing fuel injector:
This type of injector avoids the sudden increase in pressure inside the combustion
chamber because of accumulated fuel.
Arranging the injector so that only small amount of fuel is injected first. Employ two
or more injectors arranging in out of phase.
Comparison of SI and CI Engine Knock
Comparison of SI and CI Engine Knock
Sl. No Parameter SI Engine CI Engine
Self Ignition Temp. of Fuel High Low
Ignition delay Long Short
Compression Ratio Low High
Inlet Temperature Low High
Inlet Pressure Low High
CC Wall temperature Low High
Speed High Low
Cylinder Size Small Large
Cetane Number
• The cetane number (CN) of diesel is a measure of how quickly it
ignites in a diesel engine. The CN is a value between 0 and 100, with
diesel engines generally operating well with a CN between 40 and 5
• It is defined as the percentage of n-cetane by volume in a mixture
of n-cetane and alpa-methyl naphthalene, which exactly matches
the knocking tendency of a given fuel, in a standard fuel under
given standard operating conditions.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT INJECTION
Direct Injection Diesel Engines
• Direct injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at the top of the
combustion chamber.
• The injectors are activated using one of two methods
• hydraulic pressure from the fuel pump
• an electronic signal from an engine controller.
• Hydraulic pressure activated injectors can produce harsh engine noise.
• Fuel consumption is about 15 to 20% lower than indirect injection
diesels.
• Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection
engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion.
INDIRECT INJECTION DIESEL
ENGINE
• An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the
combustion chamber, called a pre-chamber, where combustion begins and
then spreads into the main combustion chamber, assisted by turbulence
created in the chamber.
• This system allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because
combustion is assisted by turbulence.
• Injector pressures can be lower, about 100 bar, using a single orifice tapered
jet injector.
• The pre-chamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the
engine's cooling system, which reduced the efficiency.
• The emissions are comparatively lower than the direct injection engines.
TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
C I engine combustion chambers are classified into two categories:
OPEN INJECTION (DI) TYPE
INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE
OPEN INJECTION (DI) TYPE
• This type of combustion chamber is also called an Open combustion
chamber.
• In this type the entire volume of combustion chamber is located in the
main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this volume.
• The following are the different types of open injection type combustion
chambers,
Shallow Depth Chamber
Hemispherical Chamber
Cylindrical Chamber
Toroidal Chamber
SHALLOW DEPTH CHAMBER
• In shallow depth chamber the
depth of the cavity provided
in the piston is quite small.
• This chamber is usually
adopted for large engines
running at low speeds.
• Since the cavity diameter is
very large, the squish is
negligible.
HEMISPHERICAL CHAMBER

• This chamber also gives

small squish.
• However, the depth to
diameter ratio for a
cylindrical chamber can be
varied to give any desired
squish to give better
performance.
CYLINDRICAL CHAMBER

• This design was attempted in

recent diesel engines.
• This is a modification of the
cylindrical chamber in the form
of a truncated cone with base
angle of 30°.
• Squish can also be varied by
varying the depth.
TOROIDAL CHAMBER

• The idea behind this

shape is to provide a
powerful squish along
with the air movement.

• The cone angle of spray

for this type of chamber
is 150° to 160°.
INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE
• In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space is divided
into two parts, one part in the main cylinder and the other part in the
cylinder head.
• The fuel injection is effected usually into the part of chamber located
in the cylinder head. V
• The following are the some of the examples of indirect injection type
combustion chamber,
• Ricardo’s Swirl Chamber
• Pre Combustion Chamber
RICARDO’S SWIRL CHAMBER
• Swirl chamber consists of a
spherical shaped chamber separated
from the engine cylinder and
located in the cylinder head.
• In to this chamber, about 50% of
the air is transferred during the
compression stroke.
• A throat connects the chamber to
the cylinder which enters the
chamber in a tangential direction so
that the air coming into this
chamber is given a strong rotary
movement inside the swirl
chamber.
RICARDO’S SWIRL CHAMBER
• After combustion, the products
rush back into the cylinder
through same throat at much
higher velocity.

• The use of single hole of larger

diameter for the fuel spray
nozzle is often important
consideration for the choice of
swirl chamber engine.
PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
• Typical pre-combustion chamber
consists of an anti-chamber
connected to the main chamber
through a number of small holes.
• The pre-combustion chamber is
located in the cylinder head and its
volume accounts for about 40% of
the total combustion space.
• During the compression stroke the
piston forces the air into the pre-
combustion chamber
PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
• The fuel is injected into the
pre-chamber and the
combustion is initiated.
• The resulting pressure rise
forces the flaming droplets
together with some air and
their combustion products to
rush out into the main cylinder
at high velocity through the
small holes.