DIRECTING

DIRECTING

• Directing is the process by which a

manager communicates with and
influences other members of the
organization in the pursuit of company
objectives to achieve the desirable ends.
 DIRECTING
• It is the human aspect of managing through which
subordinates are motivated, persuaded, and led to
contribute efficiently and effectively their efforts toward
realizing the vision and mission for which the
organization has been established.
• This management function is often referred to as
motivating, guiding or simply leading.
 Purpose of Directing
• Directing is perceived to be a process through which the
manager energizes the organization into action by way of
motivating and directing members to perform their
respective duties and responsibilities.
• Leadership ability is an important managerial skill which
is manifested in the manner a manager interacts with his
subordinates as he directs their activities every day.
 Purpose of Directing
• Understanding the nature of man and the interplay of
human relationships is a manager's basis on how well
directing is exercised.
• The nature of man, especially those at work, are
continuously evolving and each time is enriched with
various new research findings combined with practical
accounts of experiences of management practitioners.
Maslow's Hierarchy
of Needs
Human beings are organisms that seek and pursue the
ultimate satisfaction of their needs.

Maslow inferred that these needs are inherent in every

individual but vary in intensity, depending on the
circumstances.

Generally, an individual progresses from one dominant

need to the other, following a level of succession.
 1. Physiological.
• First level, this level comprises survival needs for food, drink, sleep,
air, movement, warmth and light which are necessary to sustain life.
• While this set of basic needs are dominant among infants, there are
also instances in the adult life where the physiological neadly, people
tend priority; e.g., the urge to eat when he is hungry. Normally,
people tend respond immediately to physiological needs but the
moment these a satisfied to a certain extent, they seek to satisfy other
needs.
 2. Safety and security.
• Second level, when the first level needs have been adequately provided for,
people would long for its continuity for a long time It is observed that people
construct their houses with strong and durable materials.
• Their offices are equipped with certain devices and means to protect
employees from fire, accidents, pollution, thieves, and other related problems.
• People open bank accounts and look forward to retirement benefits after
serving the company. All these variables reflect people's concern for protection
from possible harm and economic difficulty.
 3. Social.

The third level refers to a set of needs that impel

people to seek from other people companionship,
affiliation, camaraderie, and goal fellowship for
them to feel that they belong and are a part of a
group, accepted by others.
 4. Esteem.

• Fourth level, there is a need for a person to be recognized as having

valued skills, characteristics and achievement. A worker feels that
whatever his work is, his respect and dignity must always be upheld.
• His capabilities and aspirations as an individual must be recognized.
The need encompasses the need for independence, self-confidence,
self-worth and appreciation.
 5. Self-actualization

• Fifth level, this is the need to realize one's full potentials as a person
when satisfaction in accomplishing something is more important than
what others may say about it.
• This is the point when it becomes a need when an individual craves
to maximize and utilize all his natural endowments or potentials. This
need is not present in ordinary people because there may only be a
few who might have reached this level.
• It is observed that human needs can never be fully met
and needs satisfaction will, therefore, pose a perpetual
concern for many organizations.
• Overproviding for security and safety may result in
overdependence and complacency which, in effect,
become deterrents to self-development.
Herzberg's Two-
Factor Theory
Even if Maslow's hierarchy of needs has
become popular and accepted by
managers, students and practitioners; some
experts find the theory difficult to test.
As a matter of fact, Maslow failed to carry
out any experiment to establish the validity
of his theory.
In 1950, another theory about human motivation was
developed by Frederick Herzberg and his colleagues at the
Psychological Service of Pittsburg extending the earlier
theory of Maslow.

The specific target of study were the respondents - two

hundred engineers and accountants from eleven industries.

Their findings were two distinct factors that influenced

motivation and these are:
 1. Hygiene or maintenance
factors.
• These constitute the conditions in work; e.g., better working
conditions, salary, and effective supervision that make
employees satisfied but not necessarily motivated. Absence of
these factors will lead to dissatisfaction.
• Continually increasing the hygiene factor may not motivate
the workers once it has become adequate. It will only keep
the workers from becoming dissatisfied.
 2. Motivator or job content
factors
• These are the real motivators: achievement,
responsibility and recognition. If continuously paid
attention to, for instance, providing better opportunities
for development among workers to experience them;
then naturally, these factors will lead to the motivation
of these workers.
According to Herzberg, the motivators are the
job factors that are intrinsically motivating the
employees that constitute the most enduring
sources of motivation in the work environment.

On the other hand, the satisfiers are important

factors because these create dissatisfaction, if
not properly attended by management.
David C. McCleland's
Theory
This theory classifies people in relation to
their dominant need for achievement,
power or affiliation.

McClelland viewed that successful

entrepreneurs are persons with high N-
Ach (Need for Achievement).
This Need Achievement Theory assumed that
the linked needs satisfaction to motivating
behavior was originally conceptualized by
John Atkinson, a psychologist, whose
interests were on personality tests. The
theory argued that the "need to achieve" is a
personality trait of an individual.
The theory explains that "people who are high in
need achievement are highly motivated to strive for
the satisfaction that is derived from accomplishing
some challenging tasks.
They prefer tasks for which there is a reasonable
chance for success and avoid those that are either too
easy or too difficult.
These people also prefer obtaining specific, timely
criticism and feedback about their performance."
It was McClelland who popularized and
found application of Atkinson's work to
business, and later coined the term
"Achievement Motivation“ to describe an
individual's drive to overcome challenges for
advancement.
He believes that the basic needs to drive
people are:
 1. The need for achievement

• Studies reveal that there is a strong correlation

between high need for achievement and high
level of job performance and success.
 2. The need for power

• This is a drive to influence people to conform

with certain situations.
 3. The need for affiliation

• An individual has a need to develop warm,

friendly, cordial, and personal relationships.
 4. The need for competence

• An individual has a drive to strive for quality

work.
 4. The need for competence

• An individual has a drive to strive for quality

work.
Skinner Operant
Theory
Burrhaus Frederic Skinner, an exponent of behaviorism, contested the
theory that human needs are the determinant of human behavior.

Supported by scientific studies, Skinner (1953) believed that "the

environment determines the individual behavior even if he alters the
environment.

He argued that the workers can be motivated by properly creating the work
environment and providing rewards or stimulus for desirable worker's
performance.

Moreover, it is the external environment that influences the behavior

people exhibit rather than their external needs, wants, and desires.
In an organization, the prospect of a reward can lead to a desired
response by workers, but it only becomes a learned and repleted
behavior of the worker when such response brings about positive
results to both the worker and the manager who acts as the
motivator.

Examples of reward/positive reinforcers are:

1. Participation in decision-making
2. Important assignments
3. Appealing compensation
4. Other incentives and benefits.
According to Skinner, "Usually, the
ultimate reinforcement is similar to that
of prestige or esteem."
Negative reinforcer, for instance,
suspension from work and neutral
reinforcer like transfer of workplace, may
also be utilized to discourage unwanted
behavior and encourage favorable worker
behavior.
Terry and Franklin (1982), who studied
ten companies using positive
reinforcement or behavior modification
programs, were able to identify six
considerations for the use of positive
reinforcement in modifying motivational
behaviors of workers.
These were:

1. Do not reward equally. It reinforces average and mediocre performance.

2. Failure to reinforce may encourage poor subsequent performance.

3. Inform workers what they can do to get reinforcement.

4. Tell workers when and what they are doing wrong.

5. Do not punish a subordinate in front of other workers.

6. Be fair.
Expectancy Theory
While the Operant Theory begins with the idea that a
certain behavior depends primarily on its consequences,
the Expectancy Theory equates motivation with the
product of Valence; i.e., how much an individual
desires something and Expectancy, i.e., the
probability that a particular action will lead to the
desired thing.
He must have a clear perception of his role. Understanding
what the requirements and expectations of the job are is
needed to be able to devote himself whole-heartedly to the
tasks (Terry and Franklin, 1982).
Applying this theory, Davis (1981) stated the following
insights:

"To motivate a person, first, we must increase the positive

value of outcomes, as by increasing rewards. Second, we
can strengthen the connections between the work and the
outcomes."
It may be interesting to note that a familiar model under
this theory is that of Victor H. Vroom (1964), in which he
postulated that motivation to work is a function of workers'
expectancies regarding future outcomes.
The formula he postulated is:

Level of motivation = (EP) x (PO) x (VALENCE)

Where EP = Effort Performance Expectancy (e.g., The manager is inclined to believe that
increased marketing effort is likely to yield increase in company sales).
PO Performance Outcome Expectancy (e.g., The manager is inclined to believe that increased
sales may result in his promotion.)

Valence =

Value or preference placed on an outcome (e.g.. The manager is inclined to place great value on
promotion; hence, assign a positive value on it.)

Expectancy refers to the degree of an individual's anticipatory belief that his specific action will
certainly end in a particular result or outcome.
Harold Leavitt
From the foregoing theories, it is evident that people have a multiplicity of
needs.
Harold Leavitt (1964), makes a contribution to our understanding of
human motivation when he classified human needs into two "basic" and
"acquired."
The basic needs include food, shelter, and rest; while acquired needs are
those beliefs and values which people learn by virtue of their membership
in a social group; and consequently, realize in their daily living. Examples
of these ideas are fairness, social justice, equality, and patriotism.
The significance of Leavitt's ideas of acquired need is that it alerts our
minds in understanding the importance of an individual's social and
cultural background; and therefore, we understand better his perception
and motivations.
 Power in
Organizations
Power may be defined as the capacity to influence the action of
an individual in the direction desired by the leader.
The power to direct an individual in the organization is
determined by various factors:
 1. Legitimate Power.

• This power is vested on a person by virtue of

the authority he has in the organization. The
dean in a university has the power to direct,
control, and supervise the academic and
administrative activities in his college.
 2. Expert Power
• This is the ability to influence or impress a person
which Rises from his expertise of a particular
knowledge. An example is when we follow a
doctor's clinical advice when we are suffering from
an ailment, even though the doctor is not our
superior in the organization.
 3. Referent Power
• This is a power that comes by virtue of some distinguishing
characteristics of a leader which people identify with. An example is
charisma as a personal quality of an individual to move people to action.
• President Cory Aquino exemplifies this type of power when she was
able to incite hundreds of thousands of Filipinos to boycott a number of
business establishments identified with the Marcos dictatorship before
the February People Power, even though, at that time, she did not occupy
any position in the government.
 4. Reward Power
• This is power that comes by virtue of an individual's
capacity to grant or withhold resources which are
valued by others. An example of this is a politician
in our country who wields power to reward persons
who supported him during the election as a form of
patronage.
 5. Punishment Power

• The punishment power is closely related to

reward power which comes from the ability to
deprive a person of something of value.
 6. Relationship Power
• This is power which stems from a type of informal personal
obligation which has been built up over the years among
people in a community.
• In the Philippines, "utang-na-loob," the practice of reciprocal
obligation, has been a long-standing practice among Filipinos,
especially in the rural areas. This is an example of this source
of influence.
As a frame of reference, the three sources of power normally
attached to a managerial position in most organizations are
legitimate power, reward power and punishment power. This, in
effect, constitute the power to recommend workers for
promotion and other rewards and punishment power constitute
reprimand, transfer or demotion of workers.
Styles of Directing
Blake and Mouton (1978) made their contributions in
management by way of directing and these are:
 1. Task management

• People in any organization are regarded as

instruments of production. The relationship
between a manager and his subordinates is
based on the exercise of authority and
obedience.
 2. Country club management
• The manager is perceived to be more of a big brother
than the stern and intimidating boss. The work
environment and the work tempo become a
comfortable one. With the group as the key unit of
the organization and friendliness, collegiality and
harmony are evidently felt by the members.
3. Middle of the road management

• Workers spontaneously work and do as they are told if the

reasons for doing so are clearly explained. The formal and
the informal systems are used to keep the people in the
organizations aware of what is happening. Effort toward
work productivity, to a certain degree, is likely to be drained
as it is used to keep the two systems from getting out of step
with one another.
4. Impoverished management
• Under this style of management, the manager or the
supervisor is an expert at passing the blame on others for
his failure to absolve himself from his responsibilities. He
is fond of resorting to the use of a defense mechanism as a
shield for his virtual failure. Subordinates are left to fend
for themselves, even when action on his part may be
appropriate.
 5. Team manager
• Under this style of leadership, the manager integrates
management of production and people under
conditions where consultation and participation are
given high premium as keys for work planning and
implementation. Individual goals are in line with
organizational vision, mission, and goals.
Thank you for
listening!