DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

COURSE: GENDER AND YOUTH IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

BY: YEMIAMEREW ZAYEDE (MSc)

MAY, 2021
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DEBRE TABOR, ETHIOPIA
 Gender and Youth in Development

Chapter 1. Introduction on Concepts of Gender

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 1.1. Concept of Gender

 Gender identifies the social relations or the relationship between men and

women, boys and girls, and

 How this is socially constructed while;

 Sex identifies the biological differences between men and women.

 Sex is characterized as biological that includes: Genetics,

Anatomy and Physiology that generally define humans as

female or male. But,
 Gender refers to the socially and culturally constructed

differences between men and women;

 However, the social constructs vary across cultures and

time.
 Sex describes the biological differences between men and
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 Concept of Gender (Cont…)

 When we consider how females and males differ,

 The first thing that usually comes to mind is “SEX”

 Sex marks distinction between women and men as a result

of their biological, Physical and Genetic differences and

 Note that these biological characteristics are not mutually

exclusive;
 however, there are individuals who possess both male and

female characteristics.
 No variation from culture to culture or time to time,

cannot be changed, except with the medical treatment.

 For example, only female can give birth and can breastfeed.

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 Concept of Gender (Cont…)
 Gender, in contrast, is a social characteristic that are

socially determined ideas and practices of what it is to be

female or male
 It also refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and

women.
 Gender is an acquired identity that is learned, changes over

time, and varies widely within, across and between cultures.

 Gender roles are set by convention and other social,

economic, political and cultural forces.

 Gender roles also depend on socio-economic factors, such as

 Age, Education, Ethnicity and religion.

 Gender roles can be changed over time, since social values

and norms are not static. 5

 Concept of Gender (Cont…)
 Example: The expectation of men to be economic

providers of the family and for women to be caregivers

is a gender norm in many cultural contexts.
 However, women prove able to do traditionally male jobs

as well as men
 Example: Men and women can do housework; men and

women can be leaders and managers.

 We should bear in mind that at birth, the difference b/n

boys and girls is their sex;

 As they grow up, society gives those different roles,

Privileges and rights that at the end create the social

differences between men and women. 6
 Why we study Gender?
 Gender is pervasive reality that pervades our every day

social interactions and managements, but one that often

gets neglected or subtly ignored.

 Hence, understanding gender helps to broaden our-

understanding about ourselves and our societies.

 Gender also helps us:
 to understand other differences.
 to understand differentiation and discrimination on

other grounds.
 To equipped with a basic knowledge of gender so that

they are able to selectively reproduce social structures

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 1.2. Gender Division of labor &the triple roles

 Gender division of labor is related with clearly classifying tasks

based on gender.
 Accordingly, there are works assumed as belongs only for men and

there are also tasks exclusively assumed as the domain of women.

 Gender division of labor is socially determined ideas and practices

which define what roles and activities are deemed appropriate for
women and men.

 While the gender division of labor tends to be seen as natural and

immutable in fact, these ideas and practices are socially constructed.

 Accordingly, there are triple roles of gender. These are:

 1. productive roles, 2. reproductive roles and 3. community M.

roles.

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 Gender Division of labor……

1. Productive roles:

 Men tend to be more associated with productive roles such as

paid work (Ex. farming and manufacturing).

 Comprises production of goods and services for consumption

and trade (farming, fishing, employment, self-employment) to

generate an income and have an exchange value.

 Historically, women’s productive roles have been ignored or

under-valued, particularly in the informal sector and

subsistence agriculture.

2. Reproductive roles:
 Women are generally expected to fulfill the reproductive roles

like bearing and raising children, caring for other family

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 Gender Division of labor……

 Care and maintenance of the household and its members

(bearing and caring for children, food preparation, water

and fuel collection, shopping, housekeping, family health
care) considered as ’real work’ of women.

 The responsibility of girls and women are not only biological

reproduction but also the care and maintenance of

individuals throughout their lives, to ensure the continuation

of society to the next generation.

3. Community managing Work:
 The community management role involves women's
activities at the community level, as an extension of the
reproductive role, in order to ensure the provision and
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 Gender Division of labor……
 collective consumption of resources such as education,

health care, water..

 Collective organisation of social events and services

(ceremonies, celebrations, community improvement

activities, participation in groups and organisations, local

political activities etc.).

o Involves volunteer time, Normally unpaid.

o Men undertake community work too, but often at political

level, giving prestige.

1.3.Practical and Strategic Gender needs
 A. Practical Needs:
 are those needs deriving from the concrete conditions
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 Practical and Strategic Gender……
 Short-term, immediate perceived needs of women (e.g.

clean water, food, housing, child care, …) based on the

existing gender division of labour.

 Therefore, Meeting women's practical gender needs may

help to lessen the burdens on women deriving from their

triple role but it does not challenge the gender division of

labor.

 Problems can be solved by concrete and specific inputs,

usually economic inputs (e.g. water pumps, seeds, credit,

employment)
 B. Strategic need/interests
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 refer to those needs deriving from an analysis of women's
 Practical and Strategic ….

 Long-term, Common to all women.

 Examples of strategic gender needs include:

 abolition of the sexual division of labor,
 gaining access to higher education
 establishment of political and economic equality,
 freedom of choice over child bearing, and
 an end to male violence against women,

 Therefore, as a Solutions we:

 must involve women as active agents

 must addressed through awareness raising, education and

political mobilization at all levels of society and

 Improves the position of all women in a society.
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 1.4. Theoretical approaches of Integrating Women, Women’s concern and Gender Issues in Development process

 During the 1970s, the issue of women & their marginalization was

brought into the international agenda and resulted in three

different acknowledged approaches to development:

1.WID (Women In Development) - Liberal Feminists

2.WAD (Women And Development) - Marxist Feminists

3.GAD (Gender And Development) - Socialist Feminists

1.WID (Women in Development) Approach

 Origin: Has grown since early 1970s-changed in its intellectual and

policy focus

 Proponents include advocates, practitioners & scholars

 Theoretical Base: Marxisist and neo classical economics thoughts
feminist and non-feminists 14
 Theoretical approaches of Integrating…..

 Focus

 Walefare, equity, education, employment, poverty alleviation,

efficiency and empowerment.
 Women in Development (WID) approach:

 calls for greater attention to women in development policy and

practice, and
 emphasizes the need to integrate them into the development

process,
 By making more resources available to them in an effort to increase

their efficiency in their existing roles.

 Moser further states that WID focuses mainly on women in isolation,

 Promoting measures such as access to credit and employment as

the means by which women can be better integrated into the

development process. 15
 Theoretical approaches of Integrating…..

 The WID perspective evolved in the early 1970s from a

‘liberal’ feminist framework as a reaction to women being

seen as passive beneficiaries of development; and
 Was particularly influential in N. America.

 It marked an important corrective and highlighting the fact

that, women need to be integrated into development

processes as an active agents.
 If efficient and effective development is to be achieved;

 Women’s significant productive contribution was made

visible, although their reproductive role was downplayed.

 Women’s subordination was seen in terms of their exclusion

from the market sphere, and limited access to and control

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 Cont…
 Programmes informed by a WID approach addressed
women’s practical needs by:
 Creating employment and income-generating opportunities,

 Improving access to credit and access to education.

 Women’s ‘problem’ was therefore diagnosed as insufficient

participation in a kind development process, through an

oversight on behalf of policymakers.
2.Women and Development (WAD) Approach
 Origin: Emerged from a critique of the modernization

theory and the WID approach in the second half of the

1970s.
 Theoretical base: Draws from the dependency theory
 Focus: Women have always been part of development 17
 Women and Development (WAD) Approach….

 Contribution:

 Accepts women as important economic actors in their

societies
 Women’s work in the public and private domain is central to

the maintenance of their societal structures.

 Features:

 Falls to analyze the relationship between patriarchy,

differing modes of production, women’s subordination &
oppression.
 Discourages a strict analytical focus on the problems of

women independent of those of men

 Singular pre-occupation with women’s productive role at the
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 3. Gender and Development Approach (GAD)

 Origin: As an alternative to the WID focus, this approach emerged

in the late 1970s and well developed in the 1980s.

 Theoretical base: Influenced by socialist feminist thinking and

critiques of liberal feminist efforts to carve out more of a role for

women in development

 Focus: Offers a holistic perspective looking at all aspects of

women’s lives.

 It questions the basis of assigning specific gender roles to different

sexes.

 Contribution:

 Does not exclusively emphasize on female solidarity

 Recognizes women’s contribution inside and outside the household,

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 Gender and Development Approach ……

 GAD challenged the WID focus on women in isolation,

 Seeing women’s ‘real’ problem as the imbalance of power b/n

women and men.

 GAD approach focuses on the socially constructed basis of

differences between men and women and emphasises the need to

challenge existing gender roles and relations in different
settings.
 GAD approaches generally aim to meet both women’s practical

gender needs and more strategic gender needs by challenging

existing divisions of labour or power relations.
 This approach views women as active agents’ not as passive

recipients of development
 but not assume that women have perfect knowledge or
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 Gender and Development Approach ……

 This approach starts from a holistic perspective that looks at

the totality of social organization, economic and political life

to understand the sharing of particular aspects of society.
 Features:

 GAD rejects the public/private dichotomy.

 It gives special attention to oppression of women in the

family by entering the so-called private sphere.

 Women seen as agents of change rather than as passive

recipients of development assistance.

 Stresses the need for women to organize themselves for a

more effective political voice.

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 Gender and Development Approach ………

 Focuses on strengthening women’s legal rights, including the

reform of inheritance and land laws.

 It talks in terms of upsetting the existing power relations in

society between men and women.

1.5. Global History of women’s Movement
 The history of feminism is divided into three waves.

1.The first wave of feminism:

 transpired in the 19th and early 20th centuries particularly in

US and UK.
 The first wave originally, focused on:

 Promotion of equal contract and property rights for women

 Opposition of chattel marriage and ownership of married

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 Global History of women’s….
 By the end of the 19th century the focuses were:

 Gaining political power, Particularly the right of women's

suffrage was the main goal.

 Yet, feminists were still active in campaigning for women's

sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time.

 The first wave ended in the 1920s.

 2. Second wave feminism occurred in the 1960s and 1970s-1980s

 The second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase

of feminism involving the suffrage in the U.K. and U.S.A.

 The second wave was largely concerned with issues of

equality, such as ending discrimination.

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 Global History of women’s ……
 Major achievements of 2nd Wave Feminism were:

 Feminist activism composed of grassroots and academics

 Feminists struggled for women's rights through advocacy,

popular presses
 The main objective of this transformation is:

 to understand the causes of women’s oppression and

 to overturn male dominated science, knowledge and social

order
 Feminists challenged male-dominated theories, knowledge

and curriculums and launched women’s studies as a distinct

academic field.
 Third-Wave of feminism:
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 Global History of women’s ……
 Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge the second wave's definitions

of femininity, which over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-

class white women
 The emphasis of third wave feminism is on diversity of women’s

experiences and contexts of oppression.

 Women’s experiences of oppression are different based on:

 Race, Class, Sexual orientation,

 Ethnicity, Age, Culture,
 Nationality, Physical conditions, Religion etc.
 By virtue of being women,

 Women share some forms of oppression, devaluation and Exploitation

 However differences are much wider than commonalities.

 There are also interlocking oppressions

 Ex. black women, Black disabled women etc. 25

 1.6. National/Ethiopian/Context for Gender Issues
 Women in Ethiopia, as anywhere else, occupy the low status in the

society.
 Although they represent 49.8% of the population and contribute mainly

to food production and others,

 They have not shared the fruits of development equally with their male

counterpart.
 However, Ethiopia has been involved in different national and
international forums such as the Fourth World Conference on Women,
 Where the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action (BPA) was

realized among 189 governments.

 The BPA which is called for the mainstreaming of a gender perspective

in the design, implementation and monitoring of all policies, programs,

 in order to design their own specific programs and activities in
consultation with women's group and other stakeholder for its
implementation. 26
 National/Ethiopian/Context for Gender Issues. ….

 As its commitment to gender equality and equity, Ethiopia is

also a signatory of global agreements on women rights such

as
 Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination

against Women (CEDAW).

 Furthermore, Ethiopia has ratified major international

conventions including:
 Convention of Civil and Political Rights,

 Convention on Economic and Socio-Cultural Rights, & the

Child Right Convention (Ethiopia PM Office/ Women's Affairs

Sub Sector, 2004).
 The FDRE Constitution has also made the provisions of this
27
convention as an integral part of the law of the land.
 National/Ethiopian/Context for Gender Issues.….…

 A task has also been set up to realize MDGs in Ethiopia.

 Apart from being a signatory of major conventions that protects women

from discrimination, the FDRE has also expressed its commitment to

gender equity and equality by issuing a national Policy on Ethiopian.
 through focusing with critical areas of concern on:

 poverty and Economic Empowerment of Women and Girls,

 Human Rights of Women and Violence Against Women and Girls,

 Education and Training of Women and Girls,

 Institutional Mechanism for the Advancement of Women,

 Empowering Women in Decision Making,

 Women and Environment and.

 Reproductive Rights and Health including HIV/AIDS.

 Rights such as, access to land, credit and other productive

28
resources……
 1.7. Gender Related Problems in Ethiopia
 According to the National report (2004), the experience and multiple

forms of deprivations for women are:

 longer working days, women specific ill health,

 low levels of education relative to men, and

 lack of adequate representation in leadership and decision-making

positions.
 While adult literacy rate for women is about 32% and net female primary

enrolment ratio is about 27%, it is about 42% for males.

 Women represent only 7.6% of the House of People Representative

(Parliament) and 12.9% of State (Regional) Council.

 Further, violence and discrimination against women is still widespread in

the country.
 It is estimated that 1.9 million people are living with HIV/AIDS and Out

of this number 1.1 million are women.

 Maternal mortality is also high in the country (National report, 2004). 29
 Chapter Two

Gender Analysis and Gender Analysis Frameworks

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 2.1. Concepts or Definition of Gender Analysis

 Gender Analysis is a tool to better understand the realities of

the women and men, girls and boys whose lives are impacted by
planned development.
 Gender analysis refers to the variety of methods used to

understand the differences in men and women's lives with

respect to social and economic inequity for policy development
and service delivery.
 It is a systematic process of identifying the differences in and

examining the related needs of the roles, statuses, positions and

privileges of women and men.
 This analysis is based on the premises that gender is a critical

variable in the development process.

 Gender analysis should be a prior activity of any development
31
 Concepts or Definition of Gender Analysis …


Gender analysis is primarily concerned with cultural dimensions
of women's and men's roles and
 how these variables influence the process of sustainable
development.
 Gender analysis offers information to understand:

 women's and men's activities,

 their access and control over resources,

 the underlying causes of inequities and

 tools that can be used to address disparities to achieve positive

change for women.

2.2. Importance of gender analysis

 Gender analysis helps to identify the needs and experiences of the
genders.
 provides information regarding the relationship of gender with
32
 Importance of gender analysis…..

 to identify different needs of men and women that will help to

achieve organizational objective efficiently and effectively as a result

of equal participation of men and women.

 to highlight the different responsibilities of men and women that

might constrain their participation in projects, programs,

leadership position of an organization etc.

 to understand different stakeholders’ capacity to participate in any

given intervention, with their level of education or autonomy.

 to determine the different ways in which men and women do, or do

not benefit from particular interventions.

 can also provide insights on how gender equality can be promoted

within efforts for sustainable development to ensure maximum

efficiency in pursuing development goals. 33

 Importance of gender analysis…..

 Both qualitative and quantitative gender analytical research

can also be used to raise awareness of gender issues;

 to inform policy makers;

 to provide material for gender training; and

 to monitor the differential impact of policy, project and

budget commitments on women and men.

 provides clear insights regarding the existing gender

relations, causes, effects and measures to be taken to

eliminate the existing disparities.
2.3. Gender Analysis Framework/Tools
 A gender analysis framework (GAF) provides a structure for

organizing information about gender roles and relations.

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 Gender Analysis Framework…..

It provides a way to systematize information about gender

differences across different domains of social life, and

To examine how these differences affect the lives and health of

men, women, boys, and girls.

Other gender analysis frameworks are structured similarly but

may vary the grouping of content and labels for the domains.
The principal conceptual models that have framed gender analysis include:

 2.3.1.Harvard Analytical Framework (HAF)

 2.3.2.The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)

 2.3.3. The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) Framework

 2.3.4. Women’s Equality and Empowerment (Longwe)

Framework
35
 Gender Analysis Framework…..

2.3.1.Harvard Analytical Framework

 The Harvard Analytical Framework sets out

 firstly, to make an economic case for allocating resources to

women as well as men, and

 secondly, to assist expert to design more efficient projects.

 HAF is a tool to collect data at the community and household

level.
 It is most useful for projects that are agricultural or rural based

and/or that are adopting a sustainable livelihoods approach to

poverty reduction.
 It is also useful to explore the twin facts of productive and socially

reproductive work, especially with groups that have limited

experience of analyzing differences between men and women. 36
 Harvard Analytical Framework …..

 The framework seeks to make visible the contributions of men, women

and children in the development process and also to expose their

access to and control of development resources and benefits.
 It has four interrelated components:

A. Harvard Tool 1: The Activity Profile (who does what?)

B. Tool 2: Access and Control Profile-over Resources and Benefits (who

has access and who control what?)

C. Tool 3: Influencing Factors on activities, access and control

D. Tool 4: The Project Cycle Analysis:

A. Harvard Tool 1: The Activity Profile

 This tool assists in identifying the productive, socially reproductive

and community managing activities of women and men, girls and boys.
 Other data disaggregated by gender, age or other factors can also be

included.
37
 Women Men/
Activities /girls boys
Productive Activities
1. Agriculture: Land preparation, Cultivation,
Harvesting, Post harvest management
2. Income Generating: non-farm, off farm (e.g.
petty trade ) etc.
3. Other:
Reproductive Activities
Fetching water, Collecting firewood, Food preparation,
Childcare, Health related, Cleaning and repair, Market
related and Others

N.B. To identify which activities done by who use signs (e.g. X,  )

38
 Harvard Analytical Framework …..

 It can record details of time spent on tasks and their location.

Tool 2:Access and Control over-Resources and Benefits

 With this tool the resources women and men use to carry out the

tasks identified in the activity profile can be listed.

 It identifies whether women or men have access to resources, who

controls their use and who in the household or community controls

the benefits from them (benefits can include outside income, basic
needs, training).
 Men and women do not have the same access or control over

productive resources or benefits accruing from them.

 This gender-based inequality can have implications for the design

and implementation of development interventions.

 Thus, access to and controls over resources are key factors

determining the benefit that people have got. 39

 Harvard Analytical Framework …..

 Access to and controls over resources, therefore, are important

factors of project assessments and gender analysis.

 Access (A): This is defined as the opportunity to make use of a

resource without having the authority to decide about the

produce/output and the exploitation methods.

 Control(C): This is the power to decide how resources are used, and

the output of resources who has access to it.

 examples of gender based Access and Control of resources and

benefits profile can be distinguished into:

 Natural resources, such as land, water, forests etc,

 Physical resources (production tools and inputs, credit, buildings etc,)

 Soci0-cultural resources such as information, education etc,

 Human resources (labor force, skills etc.) 40

 Access Control
Women Men Women Men

Resources
Camel
Cattle
Land A A C
Cash A C
Extension service , etc. A C
Other
Benefits:
Outside income, Asset ownership, Basic
needs (food, clothing, shelter etc, Education,
Political power/prestige and others
NB: the list of resources and benefits given in the above table are not exhaustive.
41
 Harvard Analytical Framework …..
Tool 3: Influencing Factors

 These are a list of factors which determine the gender differences

identified in the Activities and Access and Control profiles.

 Identifying changes over time, can give an indication for future shifts.

 The factors, which determine who does what in any population sub-

group and what access and control individuals have to resources and

benefits, are broad and interrelated. But we can categorize them as

follows:
 General economic trends such as poverty levels, inflation rate, income

distribution, international terms of trade, infrastructure, etc,

 Institutional structures, Life expectancies
 Demographic factors, Age of marriage

42
 Harvard Analytical Framework …..
 Community norms, such as familial and religious beliefs

 Training and education, , External market forces,

 Land tenure system, Political system, conditions,
 Climatic conditions, Educational system,
 Environment, and Existing laws and regulations

 Tool 4: The Project Cycle Analysis:

 This is a list of questions which the user can apply to a project proposal

or area of intervention to examine it

 from a gender perspective using gender disaggregated data, and

 charting the differential effects of social change on women and men.

43
 Harvard Analytical Framework …..
Comments on Harvard Analytical Framework: Uses
 provides clear information on the gender division of labor and

makes women’s work visible.

 makes a distinction between access to and control over

resources.
 useful as a gender neutral “entry point’’ for introducing

discussions on gender issues with counterparts, especially

where there may be resistance.
 Limitation of HAF

 Focus on efficiency rather than equity oriented, i.e, allocating

new resources in order to make a programme more efficient

rather than addressing unequal gender relations.
44

 2.3.2. The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)

 It was developed in response to the Women in Development approach

and aimed to move away from treating women’s issues as separate

issues.

 The Moser Framework is based on three major concepts:

 women’s triple roles (productive, reproductive and community),

 practical and strategic gender needs, and

 Categories of WID and GAD policy approaches.

 There are six tools in the framework that can be used for planning at

all levels from project to regional planning. It can also be used for

gender training. These are:

i. Tool 1: Gender roles Identification/triple role

ii. Tool 2: Gender Needs Assessment

iii. Tool 3: Disaggregating control of resources and decision-making
45
 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….

iv. Tool 4: Balancing of roles

v. Tool 5: WID/GAD Policy Matrix

vi. Tool 6: Involving women, gender-aware organizations and planners in

planning.

Tool 1: Gender roles Identification/triple role

 This tool includes making visible the gender division of labor.

 It can be carried out by mapping all the activities of men and women

include girls and boys in the household over a twenty-four hour period.
 Productive work, Reproductive work and Community roles

Tool 2: Gender Needs Assessment

 Women have particular needs because of their triple role as well as

their subordinate position to men in society.

 Practical and strategic gender interests/needs should not be seen as

entirely distinct and separate, but rather as a continuum.

46
 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….

 Practical gender needs arise from a person’s condition while

strategic gender interests arise from a person’s position in social

relations.

Practical Gender Needs

 Women and men can easily identify these needs as they often relate

to living conditions.

 Women may identify safe water, food, health care, cash income, as

immediate interests/needs that they must meet.

 Meeting women’s practical gender needs is essential in order to

improve living conditions,

 but in itself it will not change the prevailing disadvantaged

(subordinate) position of women.

47
 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….

Strategic gender interests/needs

 Strategic gender interests/needs are those that women

themselves identify as due to their subordinate position to

men in their society.
 They relate to issues of power and control, and to

exploitation under the sexual division of labor.

 Strategic interests/needs may include:

 changes in the gender division of labor (women to take on

work not traditionally seen as women’s work, men take

more responsibility for child care and domestic work),
 legal rights, an end to domestic violence,

 equal wages and women's control over their own bodies.48

 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….

 They are not as easily identified by women themselves as

their practical needs; therefore, they may need specific
opportunities to do so.
 By consulting women on their practical gender needs entry

points to address gender inequalities in the longer term

(strategic gender interests/needs) can be created.
Tool 3: Disaggregating control of resources and
decision-making within a household
 This tool is used to find out:

 who has control over resources within the household,

 who makes decisions about the use of these resources, and

 how they are made. 49

 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….

Tool 4: Balancing of roles

 This relates to how women manage the balance between their

productive, reproductive and community tasks.

 It asks whether a planned intervention will increase a women’s

workload in one role with consequences for the other roles.

Tool 5: WID/GAD Policy Matrix
 The WID/GAD policy matrix provides a framework for
identifying/evaluating the approaches that can be used to
address the triple role, and the practical and strategic gender
needs of women in programs and projects.
 Five different approaches can be identified.

 Welfare; Equity; Anti- Poverty; Efficiency and Empowerment

50
 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….
 Tool 6: Involving women, gender-aware organizations and

planners in planning.
 The aim of this tool is to ensure that:

 practical and strategic gender needs are identified by women

 “real needs’’ as opposed to "perceived needs" are incorporated into

the planning process.

Usefulness of Moser Framework

 The concept of practical and strategic gender needs is a very useful

tool for evaluating the impact of a development intervention on

gender relations.
 The triple role concept is useful in revealing the wide range of work

that women engage in.

 It aware planners to the interrelationship between productive,
51
reproductive and community roles.
 The Moser Framework (Gender Planning)…….
Potential Limitations:
The framework looks at the separate activities of women

and men rather than how these activities interrelate.

Not everyone accepts the concept of the triple role,

particularly in relation to community roles.

Other forms of inequality such as race and class are not

addressed.
Moser does not consider the strategic gender needs of

men.

52
 Chapter Three

Women and Men Farmers in Rural

Development

53
 3.1. Concepts of Development and Rural development

3.1.1. Development:
 Interest in development issues and conceptions is recent
origin, dating back not much earlier than the 1950’s and
early 1960s.
 Since the mid 1950’s the notion of development as something

positive has been tied to third world countries.

 Different scholars perceive that the existence of mass

poverty in the third world countries is due to the lack of

development and under development.
 Generally, even though there is no consensus on what the

subject of development tries to cover, different definitions

were forwarded by different scholars such as;
1. Development refers to the social reproduction and
transformation process of the developing countries, 54in
 Development …
2. Development refers to a set of conversation formulated in the
process of efforts to understand social, cultural and political
characteristics of societies as well as to explore how societies
change over space and time.

3.1.2. Rural Development

 Rural development is not a charity program and its objective is

to raise the capacity of producing more crops, better crops,

variety crops, greater output per unit of input and higher quality
of output.
 Therefore education, information, training, research, and
application of research is within the range of rural development.
 There is however no universally acceptable definition of rural

development and the term is used in different ways and in vastly

55
 Rural Development…..
 As a concept, it can be the overall development of rural

areas with a view to improve the quality of life of rural

people.
 In this sense it is a comprehensive and multidimensional

concept and encompasses the development of

 agriculture and allied activities-

 village or cottage industries and crafts,

 socio-economic infrastructure,

 community services and facilities, and above all, the human

resources in rural areas.

 As a phenomenon, it is the result of interactions between

various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural,

56
 Rural Development…..

 As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social well-

being of a specific group of people for the rural poor.

 As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature representing an

intersection of agriculture, social behavior, engineering and

management sciences.

 Therefore, to avoid ineffective struggle among the numerous

definitions, we shall define rural development as a process of

developing and utilizing:

 natural and human resources, technologies, infrastructure facilities,

institutions, and government policies and programs

o to encourage and speed up economic growth in rural areas,

o to provide jobs, and to improve the quality of rural life towards self-

sustenance. 57
 Rural Development…..
 In a nutshell, the process of rural development must represent the

entire range of change by which a social system moves away from

a state of life perceived as ‘unsatisfactory’ towards a materially and
spiritually better condition of life.

3.2. The need to work with both women and men farmers
 At least 70% of the world’s very poor people live in rural areas in

developing countries. Their livelihoods usually depend either

directly or indirectly on agriculture.
 According to traditional patterns of work distribution within the

household, in most developing countries women are primarily

responsible to meet the basic needs of their families.
 Women mainly produce food for household consumption and local

markets, whereas men more often work in agricultural wage labor

58
and cash crop production.
 The need to work with both women and men farmers …

 Generally, women are responsible for food selection and preparation,

and for the care and feeding of the children, and

 therefore play a key role in defining the coping strategies of poor

households to ensure food security and to reduce risk.

 Women normally spend a higher share of their income than men on

providing food, health and education to the family.

 Additionally, they expend a lot of time and hard work in procuring

water and domestic fuel.

 For instance, in Lesotho women spend more than twice as much time

as men and boys in fetching water and gathering firewood alongside

with the responsibility of reproductive tasks.
 women are also engaged in productive tasks such as:

 agricultural work, raising cattle, seed management, planting, as

well as the processing and marketing of agricultural products.

59
 The need to work with both women and men farmers … .
 In livestock farming, women feed the animals, clean the stalls

and manure.
 When raising poultry, sheep, goats or rabbits, they are
responsible for breeding and tending to the animals’ health
 It is women who cultivate the kitchen gardens and who sustain

the family when harvests are poor.

 The activities performed by women are often unpaid.

 Given the importance and variety of their tasks, women are

important bearers of knowledge related to the sustainable use of

natural resources, including strategies for adapting to climate
change and conserving agro-biodiversity.
 However, in spite of their importance and diverse contributions,

women in agriculture and rural areas have less access than men
60
 The need to work with both women and men farmers … .
 Because Gender inequality is present in many assets, inputs and

services:
 For example, women have low access to or control over land, financial

services, productive resources (fertilizer, mechanical equipment, new

technologies), extension or marketing services and credit.
 Similarly, men represent 85% of agricultural landholders in Sub-

Sahara Africa.
 In Ghana, Madagascar and Nigeria men own more than twice the

units of livestock compared to women.

 Besides, several studies have shown that gender inequality related to

food security is aggravated during crises:

 Women tend to become the “shock absorbers” of household food

security,
 e.g. skipping meals, to make more food available for other hh.
61
 The need to work with both women and men farmers … ..
 Moreover, women are:

 often underrepresented in rural organizations and

institutions, and
 generally poorly informed regarding their rights.

 This prevents them from having an equal say in decision-

making processes, and reduces their ability to participate in

collective activities,
 e.g. as members of agricultural cooperatives or water user

associations.

62
 3.3. Barriers to women’s involvement in extension
 Women are a key asset in agricultural development worldwide.

 On average, their labor comprises

 43% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries,

 ranging from about 20% in Latin America to almost 50% in East

and South-east Asia and in Sub-Saharan Africa.

 Some sources even claim that in many African countries up to

80% of the farm labor is done by women.

 In addition, many farming households in developing countries are

female headed, due to male labor migration or loss of husbands to

conflicts, HIV/ AIDS, etc.
 According to the FAO State of Food and Agriculture Report 2011-

2012, women could increase yields on their farms by 20–30% if

they had the same access to productive resources and training as
63
men.
 Barriers to women’s involvement…..
 This would raise the total agricultural output in developing

countries by 2.5–4%, and

 consequently reduce the number of malnourished people
worldwide by 12–17%.
 These statistics highlights that: women, in their numerous roles,

fundamentally contribute to food security.

 To do this, Agricultural extension – have to provide information,

training and advice in agricultural production in order to tackle

the hurdles that women face on production.
 These services provide a means for women:

 to learn new or improved production techniques,

 to receive training and advice,

 to organize themselves and

64
 Barriers to women’s involvement…..
 This empowerment in turn translates into both higher income and

improved income stability for women,

 which promotes their standing in the sector and increases overall

food security.
 Agricultural extension always occurs within a specific socio-

cultural setting, which is subject to the same power dynamics

that shape gender relations that limit women’s access to
resources and support.
 Similarly, technologies themselves, which are seldom gender-

neutral, may influence power relations.

 Therefore, consideration of multiple aspects is required to

achieve a gender equitable agricultural extension that empowers

women to contribute to agricultural production to their full
65
 Barriers to women’s involvement…...
 But, there are a number of obstacles that face any attempt to

introduce gender-equitable extension in developing contexts.

 To begin with, it is often difficult for women to attend trainings

due to their role and position in the society.

A heavy workload and childcare responsibilities make it
problematic for many women to take time off to join extension
related activities.
 In addition, in a number of African, Asian and Latin American

cultures, women are:

 not allowed to talk to male agricultural extensionists,

 prohibited from leaving home alone, or

 not permitted to use public transport or drive a motorbike:
 Therefore, all prohibitions effectively prevent women from
attending trainings in neighboring villages or work as female
66
extensions’.
3.4. Developing Appropriate extension package for women
 The following general measures and steps to action have

proven to have a positive impact on gender equality in

agriculture and rural development. These are:
A. Capacity Development
B. Policy dialogue and advice
C. Support participation of women in decision making
processes
D. Create transparency and raise awareness
E. Improve available data disaggregated by gender
F. Ensure an equitable access to natural resources and means
of production
G. Introduce time saving technologies
67
 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
A. Capacity Development
 Due to their frequently lower standard of education, women

are generally less likely than men to know and understand

their legal rights.
 Therefore, GIZ actively setting up education and training

programs for women:

 in order to ensure that women have the capacities to

effectively use agricultural land and means of production.

 GIZ also supports women to include systematically formal

education programs on agriculture and rural development:

 in order to raise their participation in decision-making

bodies.
68
 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
 Last but not least, GIZ is setting up and expanding rural

women’s organizations to help optimize production and

distribution
 for example, through the joint procurement of new machines or

joint marketing of products.

B. Policy dialogue and advice
 Policy makers and legal draftsmen who intend to improve

gender balance must take into consideration the crucial role of

women in agricultural and entrepreneurial production and in
the reduction of poverty.
 GIZ therefore supports developing countries in their efforts

 to improve the political and institutional frameworks regarding

both formal and informal agricultural sector in order for men

69
 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
C. Support participation of women in decision making
processes
 Giving women an equal say in decision-making processes in

rural development institutions

 improves their access to resources, factors of production such

as land and capital, and to markets.

 GIZ therefore offers support for safeguarding and
institutionalizing gender balanced representation in all
administrative and decision-making bodies involved in
agriculture and rural development.
D. Create transparency and raise awareness
 Openness and transparency regarding gender disparities in

agriculture and rural development are needed

70

 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
 Therefore, GIZ achieves this by raising awareness among the

population and targeting specific stakeholders, such as village

chiefs.
 For example, GIZ supports translations of relevant laws and

policies into local languages, as well as public announcements.

E. Improve available data disaggregated by gender

 Only a few countries systematically integrate gender-sensitive

information on agriculture and rural development into their

national or regional statistics.
 Therefore, GIZ offers support:

 to carry out gender-sensitive studies and analysis, and

 to enhance the partner capacity to monitor and evaluate gender-

differentiate defects of rural development policies, programs or

71
 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
F. Ensure an equitable access to natural resources and
means of production
 Women need to be able to use own land and other

productive resources in order to secure livelihoods and food

security of their families.
 GIZ therefore undertakes important efforts to improve

women’s access to financial, technological and extension

services, as well as to markets.
 An example is increasing land registration in the name of

women ( fact sheet Gender and Access to Land).

G. Introduce time saving technologies
 The greater economic engagement and responsibility
72
 Developing Appropriate extension package …..
 GIZ therefore supports women in using appropriate technologies, thus

 reducing the time they spend for routine burdens that are common in

rural areas (e.g. gathering firewood or water), and

 allowing them to engage in more productive tasks.

 In a number of countries, the introduction of firewood-saving stoves

has not only contributed to protect the remaining forest reserves, but
also to spare numerous women hard work and time.
3.5. Policy Related Issues for rural Women
 Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to the problem on

the role of women in rural development, resulting in the insertion of

special measures in Agenda 2000.
 Programs for rural development aims at:

 identifying the constraints on women’s full participation in local,

public and economic life in order to develop specific initiatives in favor

of women. 73
 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 Define the strategies and objectives of the new rural development

policy oriented towards integrated, sustainable development and

 aims at creating jobs in such a way as to guarantee better use of

existing human resources, and promoting equal opportunities for

women.
 For example, in Europe, since the dawn of European history women’s

productive activities have been primarily directed towards the

maintenance and growth of nuclear families and their respective
communities.
 An important part of these activities has centered on the domestic

sphere where
 they have produced goods and food and

 labor power has been reproduced.

 These conditions have a particular impact on pre-capitalist societies,

74
 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 In these circumstances the majority of women were exploited

simultaneously in both their working and reproductive capacity.

 The product of their labor and their body was controlled by a

husband, a father, a guardian or employer.

 Management and control were in the hands of men,

 via the marital or parental bond or

 by means of the dependence which was reinforced by the public

and political position of men.

 Women’s domestic labor has not been regarded as it actually

was, but rather as a fundamental part of their «virtue» as

women.
 Their «virtue» has been essential for the family.

 Their «virtue» has been the key to the well-being of society. 75

 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 A land holding without a woman is unthinkable.

 However, working in the countryside has almost always

seemed like an extension of domestic work and thus formed

part of women’s «natural» activities.
 As stated above, production and kinship are intimately

linked in pre capitalist societies, and agricultural duties

were an integral part of the home.
 Recently, European policy makers have expressed an
increased interest in issues related to women’s contribution
and presence in agriculture.
 The latest Euro stat indicators reveal that women make up

37% of the EU agricultural workforce.

76
 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 In relation to this, rural women play a crucial role in agriculture

since they participate in food safety-oriented productions,

reconciling of work using family labor and family
responsibilities etc.
 In Ethiopia, the current rural development policy done by policy

makers claims that efforts being made to widen the

participation of women in rural development in order to
increase their productive capacity.
 Further, in Ethiopia women bear the burden of housework and

assume most of the responsibilities of raising children which is

the reality on the ground although this state of affairs should be
changed.
 They argued that there must be special efforts to put them on a
77
 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 Hence, primary education for women yields additional

benefits in terms of family hygiene and health care and

support for children's education.
 Thus, the policy stressed that equality of women in

education should be unconditionally affirmed.

 The rural development policy also stated that apart from

giving priority to women in vocational training, it is

necessary to promote their employment in the fields in
which they have had training
 in order to enhance their contribution to the overall

development.
 In addition to their household work load, women can
78
 Policy Related Issues for rural Women……
 Besides, in order to widen the participation of women in rural

development, the rural development policy pointed out that,

it is necessary to increase their political participation as well.
 Strategies to increase their participation in Kebele councils

and committees should be promoted aggressively.

 In addition to this, for the effort to increase women’s overall

participation, the policy recommended that

 Women's associations should be organized at Kebele level to

make a significant contribution to the political as well as

rural development.
o Women in turn may derive the benefits from such
participation.
79
 Women
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 Define Concept of empowerment
 Identify and discuss type of Women empowerment
 Economic empowerment of women (poverty
eradication, Micro-credit, women & Agriculture,
Women & Industry)
 Social Empowerment of women (Education, Health,

Nutrition, Rural energy and Drinking water)

80
 4.1. Concepts of Empowerment
 Empowerment refers to the prosses of gaining access and

developing one's capacities with a view,

 to participate in shaping one's own life and that of one's

community in economic, social and political terms.

 Women empowerment concerns:

 Planning, organizing,

 improvement, development and evaluation of policy

processes
 Empowerment is essentially a bottom-up process rather than something

that can be formulated as a top-down strategy.

 The ultimate goal of women’s empowerment is for women themselves to
81
be the active agents of change in transforming gender relations.
 Concepts of Empowerment……
 So that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all

development policy, strategies and intervention at all levels

and all stages.
According to the Bejjing Declaration (1995), “women’s

empowerment and their full participation on the basis of

equality in all spheres of society, in terms of decision –making
process and access to power, are fundamental for the
achievement of equality, development and peace”.
 The women empowerment is a holistic approach to bring

overall improvement for the women, irrespective of the

situation where they are born and brought up.
It must include:

1) Creating an environment through positive economic and

82
 Concepts of Empowerment……
It must include:

1) The enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental

freedom by women on equal basis with men in all spheres
(political, economic , social, cultural and civil activities).

2) Equal access to participation and decision making of

women in social , political and economic life of the nation.

3) Equal access to women for health care, quality education

at all levels, career and vocational guidance, employment,
equal wage, social security and public office etc.

 As far as the type of women empowerment is concerned,

there are two broad types of empowerment mechanism for

women. These are: 83
 4.2. Types/Aspects of Empowerment
 1. Economic empowerment of women

 2. Social empowerment of women

4.2.1. Economic empowerment of women

A. Poverty eradication
In the case of poverty, women and girls are mainly the

victims within the household, considering the higher status

recognized to men and boys.
Intra–household poverty might even lead to hazardous

consequences to women and girls, such as denial of

education and health care, disease, and even to prostitution.
Due to this, women comprises the majority of the population
below the poverty line and are very often in situations 84of
 Economic empowerment of women…..
Therefore, macro economic policies and poverty eradication

programs should specifically address the needs and problems

of women.
To design and implement these programs, steps have to be

taken for mobilization of poor women and convergence of

services, by offering them a range of economic and social

options, along with necessary support measures to enhance

their capabilities.
B. Micro credit
Access to credit would be one important step in empowering

rural women in Ethiopia.

Evidence from the efforts of NGOs like Care Ethiopia give
85
 Economic empowerment of women…..
It helps in their income generation as well as participation in decision

making.
In order to enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and

production, the establishment of micro-credit mechanisms and micro-finance

institution should be enhanced so that the outreach of credit would be
increased.
Other supportive measures should be taken to ensure adequate flow of credit

through extant financial institutions and banks, so that all women below
poverty line have easy access to credit.

C. Women and agriculture

Think how far our extension services are reaching on our rural women in

agriculture sector as well as in health and childcare.

86
 Economic empowerment of women…..

In view of the critical role of women in agriculture and allied sectors, as

producers,
o concentrated efforts should be made to ensure that benefits of training,

extension and various programs reach them in proportion to their numbers.


Therefore, the programs for training women in nutrition, health care, childcare

and occupations allied to agriculture like horticulture, livestock, small animal

husbandry and poultry, natural resource management etc. should be expanded

to benefit rural women.

D. Women and industry


The roles played by women in electronics, food processing and agro-

industries are becoming crucial to the development of these sectors in Ethiopia

87
 Economic empowerment of women…..
they should be given comprehensive supports in terms of

labor legislation ,

training ,

social security and other support services to participate in various industrial

sectors.
When compared to men, women need special attention, since they have to

face different types of exploitation, in addition to the suppression and

subordination.

88
 4.2 2. Social empowerment of women
1. Education

There is serious gender disparity in enrollment and completion of education at

different levels in Ethiopia.

Large majority of the out-of-school children are girls and major portion of the

dropouts are from female students.

When we compare the enrollment and graduating student at primary, secondary

and tertiary levels in our country, the share of female students is considerably

less compared to males.


Therefore, special measures are to be taken to
eliminate discrimination, - eradicate illiteracy,
universalize education, - create a gender –sensitive educational system,
89
 Social empowerment of women……
improve the quality of education to facilitate life –long learning as well as

development of occupation /vocation / technical skills by women.

This can be done by focusing on:

Reducing the gender gap in primary, secondary and higher education

Developing Gender sensitive curricula at all levels of educational system in

order to address sex stereotyping which is one of the causes of gender

discrimination.
2. Health

A holistic approach to women’s health on both nutrition and

health services will have to be adopted and special attention

has been given to the needs of women and girls at all stages 90of
 Social empowerment of women……

Health ….

As we have seen from the field realties in Ethiopia as well as

indicated in many WHO reports, the reduction of infant mortality

and maternal mortality, are sensitive indicators of human

development, which is a priority concern.


Women should have accesses to comprehensive, and quality health

care.

Therefore, Measures will have to be adopted take into account on:
o the reproductive rights of women to enable them to exercise

informed choices,
o their vulnerability to sexual and health problems together with

endemic, infectious and communicable diseases such as malaria,

91
TB, and water borne diseases.
 Social empowerment of women……
o The social, developmental and health consequences of HIV/AIDS and

other sexually transmitted diseases are to be tackled from a gender

perspective.
o The harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation,

early marriage, frequent child births, abduction and rape etc are to be

socially discouraged and for that public awareness have to be created.


Women’s traditional knowledge about child and family health care and

nutrition should be recognized through proper documentation and its

use, since they are the ones who keep such traditional wisdom, which is

being transferred from generation to generation.

3. Nutrition

Women are the major victims of household poverty, and are the ones who
skip food when it is inadequate in many poor rural households in
Ethiopia. 92
 Social empowerment of women……

In view of the high risk of malnutrition and disease that women

face at all the three critical stages: infancy and childhood,

adolescent and reproductive phase,

 Therefore, focused attention should be paid to improve the

nutritional needs of women at all stages of the life cycle through

special programs.

This is also important in view of the critical link between the health

of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women with the health

of infant and young children.

4. Rural energy and drinking water


Improving facilities and schemes for easy access to rural energy

and drinking water would save the women from a major share of
93
 Social empowerment of women……
It would also help them to involve more in productive works, which in turn

would facilitate their income generation activities, participation in decision

–making and self-confidence.

5. Women in difficult circumstances

In recognition of the diversity of women’s situations and in

Acknowledgment of the needs of specialty disadvantaged groups, measures

and programs should be developed to provide them with special assistance.

These groups include women in extreme poverty , destitute women,

women in conflict situations, women affected by natural calamities, women

in less developed regions, the disabled widows, elderly women, single

women in difficult circumstance, women household heads , women who are

victims of marital violence or rape, deserted women and prostitutes etc.

94
 Chapter Five: Rural Youth in Agricultural
Rural Development
By the end of this chapter you will be able
to:
 Understand who are rural youth.
 Identify common Problems faced by rural
youth world-wide.
 Explain the attempts made to organize the

rural Youth in Ethiopia.

95
 5.1. Who Are The Rural Youth?

Age as gender is a way of grouping the rural people.

Different countries have different age categories for the youth. The dictionary

defines the terminology as the period between childhood and maturity.

 In some countries, youth are between 12 & 18 years of age.

 In the case of Ethiopia it is 15-30, while the UN defines it as individuals from

15-24 years of age.


It is estimated that about 20% of the world’s population, which is about more than

1 billion, falls in the youth category (by UN definition).

 Of this population, about 70 live in rural areas and the majorities are victims of

rural poverty.

In the case of Ethiopia, from the total projected population of 60,000,000 (in
96
 Who Are The Rural Youth?....

This age group makes a significant labor force, The youngsters of today are the

farm families of the future. It is, therefore, important that due attention is given to

these group.

However, in LDCs the trend shows that more young people are moving to town to

seek for jobs with high expectations.

 These youngsters are slightly more educated than those who stay behind. It is,

therefore, important to catch them while they are still young.


The main objective of targeting the youth is to show concern for the future of the

youngsters and to keep them settled so as to minimize migrations to town.


Therefore, the rural youth should be catered by the extension services.
 Because rural youth programs have positive impact on young people’s

97
development and that of their families & communities.
 5.2. Common problems faced by rural youth world-wide:

a. Burdened with special obligations staring from a very early age, working for

long hours. Youngsters in some cultures are burdened with family

responsibility from an early stage of life due to early marriage…adding to the

rural population pressure.

b. They are faced with landlessness /diminishing farm size/: Although access

to land is fundamental to start a farm, it can often be difficult

for young people to attain. As a result, production is not sufficient for

the family and hence, the prospect of living below poverty level will force most

of them to leave the rural areas and migrate to urban areas.

c. Lack of motivation: as young people see the backwardness and neglect of rural

areas, they lose inspiration and often see little hope for their own future.
98
 Common problems faced by rural youth….
a. Lack of training: many lack formal education and technical training. Even

the few educated lack the skills required to make living in the rural areas.
Often the youth are not prepared for the demands of rural development.
b. Lack of involvement and opportunities: they often feel isolated and unable

to get involved in development activities. They have no representation and

no means of making their voice heard. From government perspective, there
is no plan to deal with specific needs of youth. And programs are
developed without consulting the youth.
c. Usage of drugs, and alcohol and usable to disease including HIV/AIDS,

such practices affect their health.

d. Lack of any coherent youth policy and implementation
99
 Common problem faced by rural youth world-
wide…..
 Besides, there are also other principal challenges by rural

youth which were identified by FAO/IFAD project. These

are:
1. insufficient access to knowledge, information and
education.
2. Inadequate access to financial services

3. Difficulties in Accessing Green Jobs

4. Limited Access to Markets

5. Limited Involvement in Policy Dialogue

1. The first principal challenge identified is youth’s

insufficient access to knowledge, information and
education. 100
 Common challenges or problems…..
 Therefore, agricultural training and education must be adapted to

ensure the graduates’ skills to meet the needs of rural labor

markets.
2. Inadequate access to financial services
 Most financial service providers are reluctant to provide their

services including credit, savings and insurance to rural youth due

to their lack of collateral and financial literacy, among other
reasons. Therefore:
 promoting financial products catered to youth, mentoring programs

and start-up funding opportunities can all help remedy to this issue.
 Encouraging youth to group themselves into informal savings clubs

can also prove useful in this respect.

3. Difficulties in Accessing Green Jobs
 Are identified as the fourth challenge to strengthening youth’s
101
 Common challenges or problems…..

 However, rural youth may not have the skills (or access to the

necessary skills-upgrading opportunities) to partake in the green

economy.

 Improving youth’s access to education and training including the

formal and informal on-the-job training – is needed to redress this

skills mismatch.

4. Limited Access to Markets

 Access to markets for youth is becoming even more difficult due to

the growing international influence of supermarkets and the rigorous

standards of their supply chains.

 Young rural women in developing countries face additional

constraints in accessing markets, due to their freedom of movement

which are limited by cultural norms. 102

 Common challenges or problems…..
 Therefore, improving access to education, training and market

information can all facilitate youth’s access to markets, and

particularly significant opportunities for young farmers.
 Facilitating their involvement in (youth) producers’ groups can be

similarly beneficial in this respect.

5. Limited Involvement in Policy Dialogue.

 Too often young people’s voices are not heard during the policy

process, and so their complex and multifaceted needs are not met.
 Policies often fail to account for the heterogeneity of youth, and so

do not provide them with effective support.

 To remedy this, youth need the requisite skills and capacities for

collective action to ensure that their voices are heard.

 Policymakers themselves must also actively engage youth in the

policymaking process. 103

 5.3. Rural Youth in Extension
Rural youth can play a significant role in agricultural

extension, if they are properly handled.

They can act as a dynamic force in communities because

they generally have a positive attitude to change.

By considering this fact, the following extension activities

could be done through them in order to generate positive

outcome:
 Raising demonstration plots and showing to others
 Keeping themselves aware with latest agricultural
technologies and adopt all improved agricultural
technologies.
 Educating other farmers
 Acting as liaison between extension workers and farmers. 104
 Rural Youth in Extension…..

 But, in many rural areas, agricultural knowledge and farming know-

how are passed on from parents to children.

 However, a survey carried out in the Pacific indicates that youth feel

that such advice should be provided in a more coordinated and

effective way, rather than on an informal basis.

 Vocational training and extension services are potentially effective

tools for teaching agricultural skills and providing capacity-building

trainings for rural youth, but they do not always transmit the

necessary skills, and so can result in poor employment outcomes.

 Training programs frequently lack funding and the capacities of

service providers are rather weak.

 Low education levels among many rural youth further limit training

possibilities. 105
 Rural Youth in Extension…..
 Furthermore, there is often a disparity between the kind of

training offered and the requirements of the labor market in the

evolving agricultural sector.
 Rural youth repeatedly reported lack of training in areas such as

leadership and business management as well as the need for

apprenticeship opportunities.
 In addition to these general constraints, training programs mostly

reach young men and do not cater to the needs of young women.
 This is particularly true in sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab states

and in south and west Asia.

 Root factors limiting young women’s access to training include

restricted mobility, young motherhood and limited schooling

levels. 106
 Ethiopia
 The economic growth literature argues that as an economy grows, the

location and structure of labor transitions from primarily rural,

agriculture-focused activities to more urbanized activities in the

industry and service sectors.

 This structural transformation improves the livelihood of those who

earn higher wages in employment offering potentially better wages, but

it also increases land to labor ratios of those who remain in agriculture,

providing capital to spur innovation and agricultural productivity

growth in rural areas.

 Over the last few decades, Ethiopia’s economic development strategy,

the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy, has

aimed to increase agricultural productivity, and in doing so, encourage

labor diversification via the development of rural non-farm activities.

107
 Attempts Made to Organize…..
 This mode of development is supported by a large body of

research literature which suggests that growth in the rural non-

farm sector is driven by agricultural productivity growth.
 Given Ethiopia’s focus on ADLI, agricultural production has

increased substantially and the country has experienced

impressive economic growth over the last decade of
approximately 11 percent per year.
 However, macro-economic trends suggest that Ethiopia’s economy

remains at a very early stage in its structural transformation.

 From a policy point of view, understanding how youth can take

advantage of employment opportunities, both in the agriculture

and non-agriculture sectors, will inform future economic growth
potential in years to come. 108
 Attempts Made to Organize…..
 Slow urbanization paired with vibrant economic growth suggests

that rural youth will remain an important component of the

agricultural labor force, while also seeking to diversify into non-
agricultural, higher-value labor opportunities.
 Within the agricultural sector, transformation includes moving from

low-value cereal production, which is characteristic of current

Ethiopian agricultural production patterns, to high value crops, such
as fruit and vegetables.
 Rural youth may seek to modernize agricultural practices and utilize

new technologies to enhance agricultural growth in the medium

term.
 Regarding the overall economic landscape, as structural
transformation progresses in Ethiopia, youth may drive labor
diversification trends from predominantly rural agricultural
109
Chapter six: Leadership for Development

At the end of this chapter you will be able to:

 Understand Qualifications for lay leaders

 Describe Methods of selecting lay leaders

 Explain Opinion Leadership

 Understand Theories of leadership

 Demonstrate Style of leadership

110
 6.1. Concepts of Leadership
 Leadership is defined as the process of influencing others to achieve specific

objectives in specific situations without using unduly coercive methods or

techniques.
 Leadership is also defined as ability to lead; i.e. the ability

to guide, to direct or influence people.

 In any leadership situation, there are four essential elements. A group of the

people, a leader or leaders, a problem, and a possible solution.

These are the four minimum conditions from which leadership can develop.
Effective leadership skill helps managers do a better job of planning,

organizing and controlling.

There are three essential factors to be considered for effective leadership in

extension work. These are:

111
(a) Knowledge of the area in which leadership is to develop;
 Concepts of Leadership…..
(b) Knowledge of human nature; and
(c) Acceptance of leader by the group.
 The role of leaders in extension intervention is very important and

it hinges on several extension principles you should be familiar

with.
 For, instance a principle says; the extension worker should not do

all the work alone but rather should impart the requisite
knowledge on contact persons or local leaders who could further
influence those within his influence or domain.
 Hopefully you remember the principle of teach one teach all?

 Local leaders command the respect of the rural folks who have so

much trust in their leadership.

 By using local leaders, the extension worker is able to accomplish

much more in a sustainable manner. 112

 6.2. Quality of Leadership

 The quality of leadership in an individual is not inherent in him

but the role that is played within a specific social situation.

 Persons who are leaders in one situation are not necessarily

leaders in other situations.

 For effective delivery, the following must be present where

leadership is to be affirmed:
 Role performance actions are paramount in leadership
situation; otherwise we have weak or no leadership.
 There must be social interaction, including interaction:

o within the group, between leader and followers or

o other forms of inter-group interaction and

o other groups and individuals in the larger community.

 Without interaction there can be no leadership 113

 Quality of Leadership….

Leadership behavior is often linked to personality characteristics.

Every managerial work has a personal opinion about which traits and characteristics

are required to be an effective leader. The following are the leadership qualities

related to personal characteristics.

1. Cognitive skills

2. Personality traits and characteristics

3. Relationship with subordinates

1. Cognitive skills
In virtually every leadership situation, an effective leader must have the appropriate

amount of mental ability and knowledge which is called cognitive skills. These

include:
 a. Problem solving ability:
 b. Insight into people and situations 114
 Quality of Leadership….
Problem solving ability:
 according to cognitive resource theory, intelligent and competent leaders make

effective plans, decisions, and strategies.

 They anticipate problems before they occur and preserve until the problems are solved.

Insight into people and situations:

 an effective leader has ability to read people and situations.

 Insight into situation enables a leader to choose the appropriate leadership style for the

task at hand.

Technical and professional competency:

 some people argue that a person who has the right leadership characteristics and skills

can lead various types of groups.

 At a minimum a leader who manages specialists must not be readily bluffed by their
technical arguments.
115
 Quality of Leadership….
2) Personality traits and characteristics
 Although personality traits and characteristics are difficult to measure accurately, they

have an important influence on leadership effectiveness.

 Some of the personality traits and combination of traits that often relate to leadership

effectiveness are:
 Self -confidence - sense of humor/funniness/
 Power motive: - Enthusiasm/eagerness/
 Need for achievement - Assertiveness/forcefulness/

3. Relationship with subordinates

 Some traits of effective leaders closely linked to behaviors that involve relationship with

subordinates.
 The most important of these behavioral traits include:

i) Interpersonal skills: one of the key managerial skills is the ability to work effectively
116
 Quality of Leadership….
ii. Leading by example: a simple at effective way of influencing team members is to lead

by example, or by acting a positive model.

iii. Sensitivity and tact: being to sensitive to team member’s feelings and using tact help

build morale.

iv. Supportiveness: providing emotional support to team members contributes to leadership

effectiveness.

v. Maintaining high expectations: holding high expectation for a team member often raise

their level of performance.

 Therefore, the leader must enter the position of centrality that

means he/she is the focal point for the group activity

 The central influence of the leader must be related to the collective

action taken by the group.

 This is addressing the flow and harmony of group activities and
117
 6.3. Opinion leadership

 A trait reflecting the ability to informally influence others and thereby

promote the diffusion of new ideas and trends in a social group is opinion.
 Opinion leadership is the extent to which an individual is execrating

informal influence over the behavior of others, changing their attitudes

and behavior with a relative frequency.

 The alternative names used for opinion leadership are key

communicators, gatekeepers, influencers, test makers, style

setters, fashion leaders, etc.

 Opinion leaders are those individuals who may not occupy the

formal status in the society, but continue to influence other in

certain subject area of their credibility.

 The opinion leadership status for an individual may be specific to some aspects and

hence, there may be different opinion leaders in the community for different topics.
118
 Opinion leadership…
 The opinion leaders are significant in the context of diffusion

of innovations and adoption behavior of the community;

 they may be cold or hot in their behavior in influencing the

social life style.

The term cold means passive or indifferent to the incoming

innovation and
o hence not helping its acceptance by the society, rather

sometimes making resistance also.

Hot opinion leadership is receptive to new ideas and helps

the speedy diffusion of an innovation.

Therefore, the opinion leaders are to be handled with care, if
119
 6.4. Theories of Leadership

There are many theories emerged in the 2oth century

in relation to leadership. But, the main theories that
emerged during this time include the following
a) Trait theory,

b) Great Man theory,

c) Process leadership theory,

d) Style and Behavioral theory, and

e) Laissez Faire leadership theory.

120
 6.5. Styles of leadership

Managers and other leaders are relatively consistent in the way they

attempt to influence the behavior of the others.


The managers who dominate subordinates in one situation is not likely

to use a high degree of consideration and participation in another.


Correspondingly, the manager who is considerate and though full in

one situation is not likely to be insensitive and harsh in another.


The relatively consistent pattern of the behavior that characterize a

leader is called a leadership style.

Therefore, some of the leadership style in leadership continuum

are:

A. Transactional Leadership Style

B. Transformational Leadership Style

C. Autocratic style and E. free rein (laissez faire) style 121

 Styles of Leadership…..
A. Transactional Leadership Style
 A transactional leader follows the scheme of contingent

rewards to explain performance expectation to the

followers and appreciates good performance.
 Transactional leaders believe in contractual agreements as

principal motivators and use extrinsic rewards toward

enhancing followers’ motivation.
 But, transactional style retards creativity and can adversely

influence employees job satisfaction.

 The three components of transactional leadership style:
1. Contingent Reward 2. Management by
Exception(Active)
122
 Styles of leadership…..

1.Contingent Reward leadership focuses on achieving results.

 Manager or leaders who use contingent reward are expected to

show direction to the employees so the job gets done.

 In nutshell, key indicators of contingent reward encompass

 performance-based material rewards,

 direction setting, reciprocity, and confidence building in the team.

2.Management by Exception(Active)

 Leaders who follow management by exception (active) have an

inherent trust in their workers to end the job to a satisfactory

standard, and avoid rocking the boat.

 “This type of leadership does not inspire workers to achieve beyond

expected outcomes,
 however, if target is achieved, the system has worked, everyone is
satisfied, and the business continues as usual. 123
 Styles of leadership…..

 There is a little sense of risk-taking, new perspectives, or

white water strategies in case of management by

exception leaders.
 It correspond need-driven change culture.

 To sum it up, management by exception (active)

includes trust in workers, poor communication,
maintenance of the status quo, and lack of confidence.
3. Management by Exception(Passive)

 It is the style of transactional Leadership in which the

leaders avoid specifying agreement, and fail to provide

goals and standards to be achieved by staff.

 Sometimes, a leader waits for things to go wrong before

124
 Styles of leadership…..

“B. Transformational Leadership Style

 Transformational leadership links with positive outcomes on

individual as well as organizational levels.

 Transformational leaders emboldens followers to attain higher-order

needs like self-actualization, self-esteem and are influential in

surging followers' motivation in the direction of “self-sacrifice and

achievement of organizational goals over personal interests.

 Leaders with idealized influence demonstrate heightened concerns and

cognizance of followers' needs and generate a sense of shared risk-

taking”.
 Transformational leaders grade their relationships with followers very

high in priority and demonstrate individualized consideration in

meeting their needs for empowerment, achievement, enhanced self-
125
efficacy and personal growth.
 Styles of leadership…..

 Leadership styles, however, do not hold all of the factors that

influence innovation.

C. Autocratic leadership style

 An autocratic leader maintains most of the authority in a

group by issuing orders and telling group members what to

do without consulting them and expects them to be obeyed.

 The pure autocrat has fallen to increasing disfavor in modern

organizations where people expect to be consulted about a

wide range of matters affecting them and their work.

 The autocrat is task oriented and places little intrinsic value

on showing considerations to subordinates as a leadership

126
technique.
 Styles of leadership…..
 As with any style of leadership, there are some situations

in which being an autocrat is the appropriate style. Where

a high –accident –risk work area. acid –proof globs

 Regardless of style, “leaders who practiced relational and

transformational styles have better quality outcomes than

those who demonstrated autocracy”.

C, free rein (laissez faire):-

 If a government is laissez-faire, it does not have many

laws and rules which control the buying and selling of

goods and services.

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