EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CONCEPT OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT
DESIGN
Objectives of A seismic Design
 Objectives of a seismic design for a structure are governed by two
important factors;
(a) At a given site, the frequency of strong earthquake
shaking is much lower than that of the minor level of shaking.
In fact, many of the structures may not even experience, during
their design life, the level of strong shaking that has been either
experienced at the site during the historical time, or that has
been postulated as possible at that site.
Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
(b) It is impossibly expensive to build ordinary structures to
resist strongest likely shaking without undergoing any
damage. In fact, many of the structural systems will cease to
be feasible due to very large size of the elements if one were
to try and construct structures to resist the most severe
shaking without damage.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
 In fact, after a very severe seismic shaking, it may far cheaper to
repair or even rebuild the damaged structure than to build a “no-
damage “ structure in the first place.
 Hence in the event of a very severe but infrequent ground shaking,
the structure is allowed to sustain some damage, however, the
structure even if irreparably damaged, should not collapse and
thereby the life and property in the structure must not be
endangered.
 On the other hand, structures located in earthquake-prone area may
experience minor seismic shaking rather frequently.
 It is expected that one should not have to undertake repair and
retrofit after every minute earthquake.
 Hence the structure should not undergo any damage during minor
events.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
 In the case of moderate level of shaking, one could similarly
expect a structure to undergo some non-structural damage, which
would be economically repaired after the event.
 However , even in the moderate earthquake shaking, life safety
should be ensured against damage the non-structural damage.
 Based on the above reasoning, objectives of earthquake-resistant
design are often stated in terms of three limit states.
 These limits states(Earthquake design philosophy) are;
o Serviceability Limit State
Minor and frequent shaking, that the structure should be able to
endure without sustaining any damage, thus leaving the
structure serviceable after the event.
Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
o Damageability Limit State
Moderate levels of earthquake ground motion that the structure
should withstand without structural damage, but possibly with
some non-structural, but not life-threatening damage.
o Ultimate Limit State
Severe earthquake ground motion, having an intensity equal to
the strongest either experienced or forecast at the site, that the
structure should sustain without collapse of the structural
framework, but possibly with some structural as well as non-
structural damage.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
 The level of earthquake protection to a structure must also account
for the consequences of damage to the structure.
 For instance;
o After a major earthquake, the essential services (eg. Water
supply, electricity, hospitals, schools etc.) are needed for
post earthquake management and relief. Hence, such
facilities need higher level of earthquake protection than is
provided to the ordinary buildings.
o Facilities such as dams and nuclear power plants, if
damaged in an earthquake, can cause further disaster. Hence
these facilities also need maximum level of protection.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
Response of Structure
 Inertia forces (m×a) are the
most significant which depend
upon the characteristic of the
structure and ground, is its
fundamental or natural period.
 The fundamental periods of
structures may range from
0.05 second for a well
anchored piece of equipments,
0.1 second for a one storey
frame, 0.5 second for a low
structure up to about 4 stories,
and between 1-2 seconds for a
tall building of 10-20 stories.
 Response of structure Conti-----
 Natural periods of ground are usually in the range of 0.5-2
seconds.
 So that it is possible for the building and the ground to have the
same fundamental period and therefore , there is a high possibility
for the structure to approach a state of partial response (quasi
resonance).
 This is also the range of frequency content of earthquake-generated
ground motion.
 Hence, the ground motion imparts considerable amount of energy
to the structures.
 Initially, the structure responds elastically to the ground motion,
however as its yield capacity is exceeded, the structure responds in
an inelastic manner.
 During the inelastic response, stiffness and energy dissipation
properties of the structure are modified.
Response of structure Conti-----
o Damping of Structure
There are no analytical means to reliably estimating damping of
a structure. The amount of damping in structural system must
be determined experimentally. In practice this damping effect is
expressed as a percentage of the critical damping which is the
greatest damping value that allows vibrating movement to
develop. Experience has made it possible to estimating the
degree of damping on various types of structures and some of
common types of structures are reinforced concrete 5-10%,
metal frame 1-5%, masonry 8-10%, and wood structure 15-
20%.
o Soil Foundation Interaction (Soil-Structure Interaction-SSI)
The response also depends on soil-foundation interaction,
which is hard to estimate accurately.
Therefore, it is obvious that for all practical purposes, it is not
possible to make an accurate assessment.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design Conti-----
Inertia Forces in Structures
 Earthquake causes shaking of the ground.
 So a building resting on it will experience motion at its base.
 Even though the base of the building moves with the ground, the
roof has a tendency to stay in its original position.
 But since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag the
roof along with them.
 This is much like the situation that, you are faced with when the
bus you are standing in suddenly starts and move.
Your feet move with the bus, but your upper body tends to stay
back making you fall backwards.
This tendency to continue to remain in the previous position is
known a inertia.
 Inertia forces in structures cont----
 In the buildings , since the walls or columns are flexible , the
motion of the roof is different from that of the ground as shown in
figure.
 Inertia forces in structures cont----
 Consider a building whose roof is
supported on columns as shown
in figure below.
 Coming back to the analogy of
yourself on the bus , when the bus
suddenly starts and move, you are
thrown backwards as if some one
has applied a force on the upper
body.
 Similarly, when the ground
moves, even the building is
thrown backwards and the roof
experience a force called inertia
force.
 Inertia forces in structures cont----
 If the roof has a mass ‘m’ and
experiences an acceleration ‘ü’,
then from Newton’s second law of
motion, the inertia force F(ext) is
mass ‘m’ times acceleration ‘ü’
and its direction is opposite to the
acceleration.
 Clearly, more mass means higher
inertia force.
 Therefore, lighter buildings
sustain the earthquake shaking
better.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design conti-----
Effect of Deformations in Structures
 The inertia force experienced by
the roof is transferred to the
ground via the columns, causing
force in the columns.
 These force generated in the
columns can also be understood
in another way.
 During earthquake shaking, the
columns undergo relative
movement between their ends.
 In the figure this movement is
shown as quantity ‘u’ between the
roof and the ground.
 Effect of deformations in structures cont---
 But, given a free option, columns
would like to come back to the
straight vertical position.
 That is column resist deformation.
 In the straight vertical position,
the columns carry no horizontal
earthquake force through them.
 But, when forced to bend, they
develop internal forces.
 The larger is the relative
horizontal displacement ‘u’
between the top and bottom of the
column, the larger this internal
force in the columns
 Effect of deformations in structures cont---
For this reason, these internal forces in the columns are called
stiffness forces.
In fact, the stiffness force in a column is the column stiffness times
the relative displacement between its ends.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design conti-----
Lateral Strength
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground in all three directions :-
along the two horizontal directions and in the vertical direction.
Also during the earthquake, the ground shake randomly back and
forth along each of this X, Y and Z directions.
All structures are primarily designed to carry the gravity loads.
That is they are designed for a force equal to the mass ‘m’ (this
includes mass due to own weight and imposed loads) times the
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ acting in the vertical downward
direction (-Z).
 The downward force ‘mg’ is called the gravity load.
The vertical acceleration during the ground shaking either adds to
or subtracts from the acceleration due to gravity.
Since factors of safety are used in the design of structures to resist
the gravity loads, usually most structures tend be adequate against
vertical shaking.
 Lateral strength conti-----
Vertical inertia force has to be usually considered for many special
structures (eg. dams, Nuclear reactor), large span structures or when
stability of the structure is a concern.
However, horizontal shaking along X and Y directions (both + ve
and – ve directions of each) remains a concern.
Structures designed for gravity loads, in general not be able to
safely sustain the effects of horizontal shaking.
Hence it is necessary to ensure adequacy of the structure against
horizontal earthquake effects.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design conti-----
Lateral Stiffness of the Structure
As the building is made more flexible in the lateral direction, its
fundamental natural period increases and hence reduces the lateral
force .
It may appear that we are better off by making the building more
and more flexible.
 Lateral stiffness of the structure conti-----
Many of the non-structural element(partitions, stair ladder,
pipelines etc.) and structural non-seismic elements (such as columns
which carry gravity loads but are assumed not to participate in the
lateral load resistance, sometimes referred to as “gravity columns”
actually contribute to lateral strength.
With failure of these elements, their contribution towards the
lateral load carrying capacity of the structure is lost.
For more flexible building, the floor displacement is higher, which
causes more psychological scare and discomfort to the occupants.
 Concept of earthquake-resistant design conti-----
Ductility
 It is the ability of a material or
structural element to undergo
large deformation or distortion
without rupture.
 Figure shows the behavior of
ductile and brittle material.
 Structures with higher ductility
are able to undergo stronger
shaking.
 Hence structures which are
more ductile exhibit better
seismic response.
 Ductility conti-----
 Figure shows the behavior of a
ductile and brittle structure.
 Also, inelastic response of structure
should be such that the structure
does not loose much of its strength
and stiffness as the yielding
progress.
Centre of Mass (Cm)
 Earthquake-induced lateral force on the floor is proportional to
mass.
 Hence, resultant of this force passes through the centre of mass of
the floor.
 Centre of mass of a floor can be located by the usual method of
statics.
 For the floor having uniform distribution of mass, the centre of
mass coincides with the geometric centre of the building.
 The mass of elements located between two floors, for example
columns and walls, is usually lumped equally between the two
adjacent floors.
 If there is a particularly large mass located between the two floors ,
the mass may be lumped at the two adjacent floors in inverse
proportion to the distance of the mass from the floor.
Centre of Stiffness (Cs)
 For a one-storey building, centre of stiffness is the point on the
floor through which the lateral force should pass in order that the
floor undergoes only rigid body translation, with no rigid body
rotation.
 The centre of stiffness can be located by giving the floor rigid
body translations and obtaining the force resultant of the restoring
forces exerted by the vertical elements.
 In case of multistory buildings, the concept of centre of stiffness is
more complex and several definitions are used in the literature;
each may give an entirely different location of the centre of
stiffness.
 Hence, these should be used with caution.
 Two of the more commonly used definitions of centre of stiffness
for multistory buildings are :-
o Centre of stiffness at each floor
is such that a lateral load applied
at that floor and passing through
that point does not cause rotation
of that floor(even though it may
cause rotation of other floors
through). This is the definition
often used working with storey
shear as shown in figure (right
top).
o Centre of stiffness of different
floors of a building is obtained as
those points at which the vertical
seismic load profile should be
applied such that none of the
floors undergo any revolution. It
is clear that in this definition, the
location of centre of stiffness
may depend on the vertical load
profile for the building.
 TORSION AND TWISTS IN BUILDINGS
 Consider a rope swing that is
tied identically with two equal
ropes.
 It swings equally, when you sit
in the middle of the cradle.
 Buildings too are like these
rope swings; just that they are
inverted swings as in figure.
 The vertical walls and columns
are like the ropes, and the floor
is like the cradle.
 Buildings with more than one
storey are like rope swings
with more than one cradle.
 Torsion and Twists in Buildings cont----
 Thus, if we see from sky, a
building with identical vertical
members and that are uniformly
placed in the two horizontal
directions, when shaken at its base
in a certain direction, swings back
and forth such that all points on the
floor move horizontally by the
same amount in the direction in
which it is shaken as shown in
figure is popularly known as rigid
body translation.
 Torsion and Twists in Buildings cont----
 Again, if we sit at one end of the
cradle, it twists.
 That is it moves more on the side you
are sitting.
 Likewise, if the mass on the floor of a
building is more on one side (for
instance, one side of a building may
have a storage or a library), then that
side of the building moves more under
ground movement as shown in figure.
 This building moves such that its
floors displace horizontally as well as
rotate.
 Torsion and Twists in Buildings cont----
 Now, the two ropes with which the
cradle is tied to the branch of the tree
be different in length as shown in
figure, then also the swing twists even
if you sit in the middle.
 Similarly in buildings with unequal
vertical members (i.e., columns and/or
walls) also the floors twist about a
vertical axis and displace horizontally.
 Likewise, buildings, which have walls
only on two sides( or on one side) and
thin columns along the other, twist
when shaken at the ground level.
 Torsion and Twists in Buildings cont----
 Buildings that are irregular shapes
in plan tend to twist under
earthquake shaking,
 For example, in a propped
overhanging building as shown in
figure, the over hanging portion
swings on the relatively slender
columns under it,.
 The floor twist and displace
horizontally.
 Torsion and Twists in Buildings cont----
 Twist in buildings, called torsion by
engineers, makes different portions at
the same floor level to move
horizontally by different amounts.
 This induces more damage in the
columns and walls on the side that
moves more as in figure.
 It is best to minimize (if not
completely avoid) this twist by
ensuring that buildings have
symmetry in plan (i.e., uniformly
distributed mass and uniformly
placed vertical members) or special
calculations need to be done.
 Buildings with twist will perform
poorly during strong earthquake.
 BUILDING CONFIGURATIONS
Importance of Architectural Features
 The behavior of building during earthquakes depends critically on
its over all,
o Shapes
o Size and
o Geometry
 How the earthquake forces are carried to the ground
 Hence, at the planning stage itself, architects and structural
engineers must work together to ensure that the unfavorable
features are avoided and a good building configuration is chosen.
 Building configurations conti----

Size of Buildings
 In tall buildings with large
height-to- base size ratio, the
horizontal movement of the
floors during ground shaking
is large.
 In short but very long
buildings, the damaging
effects during earthquake
shaking are many.
 In buildings with large plan
area like warehouses, the
horizontal seismic forces can
be excessive to be carried by
columns and walls.
 Building configurations conti----

Horizontal layout of Building

 In general, buildings with simple
geometry in plan have performed
well during strong earthquakes.
 Buildings with re-entrant corners,
like those U, V, H and + shaped
in plan, have sustained
significant damage.
 Many times, the bad effects of
these interior corners in the plan
of buildings are avoided by
making the building in two parts
as shown in figure.
 Building configurations conti----

Vertical layout of Buildings

 The earthquake forces developed
at different floor levels in a
building need to be brought
down along the height to the
ground by the shortest path; any
deviation or discontinuity in this
load transfer path results in poor
performance of the building.
 Buildings with vertical setbacks
cause a sudden jump in
earthquake forces at the level of
discontinuity.
 Building configurations conti----
Vertical layout of Buildings
 Buildings that have fewer
columns or walls in a particular
storey or unusually tall storey,
tend to damage or collapse which
is initiated in that storey.
 Many buildings with an open
ground storey intended for
parking collapsed or were
severely damaged during earlier
earthquakes.
 Buildings on slopy, ground have
unequal height columns along the
slope, which causes ill effects
like twisting and damage in
shorter columns.
 Building configurations conti----
Vertical layout of Buildings
 Buildings with columns that hang
or float on beams at an
intermediate storey and do not go
all the way to the foundation,
have discontinuities in the load
transfer path.
 Some buildings have reinforced
concrete walls to carry the
earthquake loads to the
foundation. Buildings in which
these walls do not go all the way
to the ground but stop at an upper
level, are liable to get severely
damaged during earthquakes.
 Building configurations conti----
Adjacency of Buildings
 When two buildings are too close
to each other, they may pound on
each other during strong shaking.
 With increase in building height,
this collision can be a greater
problem.
 When building heights do not
match, the roof of the shorter
building may pound at the mid-
height of the column of the taller
one, this can be very dangerous.
 OPEN GROUND AND SOFT STOREY
Basic Features
 Many of the RC frame buildings
constructed in recent times have a
special feature-the ground storey
is left open for the purpose of
parking as shown in figure.
 Such buildings are often called
open ground storey buildings or
buildings on stilts.
 An open ground storey building,
having only columns in the
ground storey and both partition
walls and columns in the upper
storeys, have two distinct
characteristics, namely:
 Open ground and soft storey conti---
o It is relatively flexible in the ground
storey , i.e., the relative horizontal
displacement it undergoes in the
ground storey is much larger than
what each of the storey above it
does. This flexible ground storey is
also called soft storey.
o It is relatively weak in ground
storey, i.e., the total horizontal
earthquake force it can carry in the
ground storey is significantly smaller
than what each of the storeys above
it can carry. Thus, the open ground
storey may also be a weak storey.
 Often, open ground storey
buildings are called soft storey
buildings, even though their
ground storey may be soft and
weak.
 Open ground and soft storey conti---
 Generally, the soft or weak storey
usually exists at the ground storey
level, but it could be at any other
storey level too.
 Open ground storey buildings
have consistently shown poor
performance during past
earthquakes across the world.
 The collapse of more than a
hundred RC frame buildings with
open ground storeys at
Ahamedabad during the 2001
Bhuj earthquake has emphasized
that such buildings are extremely
vulnerable under earthquake
shaking.
 Open ground and soft storey conti---
 The presence of walls in upper
storeys makes them much stiffer
than the open ground storey.
 Thus, the upper storeys move
almost together as a single block,
and most of the horizontal
displacement of the building
occurs in the soft ground storey
itself
 Thus, such buildings swing back
and forth like inverted pendulums
during earthquake shaking and
the columns in the open ground
storey are severely stressed.
 If the columns are weak, they
may be severely damaged.
 SHORT COLUMNS
Short column effect
 During past earthquakes,
reinforced concrete frame
buildings that have columns of
different heights within one
storey, suffered more damage in
the shorter columns as compared
to taller columns in the same
storey.
 Examples with short columns are
shown in figure-buildings on a
sloping ground and buildings with
a mezzanine floor.
 Short columns conti-----
 Poor behavior of short columns is
due to the fact that in an
earthquake, a tall column and a
short column of same cross
section move horizontally by
same amount Δ as shown in
figure.
 However, the short column is
stiffer compared to the tall
column.
 Stiffness of a column means
resistance to deformation-the
larger is the stiffness, larger is the
force required to deform it.
 Short columns conti-----
 Poor behavior of short columns is
due to the fact that in an
earthquake, a tall column and a
short column of same cross
section move horizontally by
same amount Δ as shown in
figure.
 However, the short column is
stiffer compared to the tall
column.
 Stiffness of a column means
resistance to deformation-the
larger is the stiffness, larger is the
force required to deform it.
 Short columns conti-----
 If a short column is not adequately
designed for such a large force, it
can suffer significant damage
during an earthquake.
 This behavior is called Short
Column Effect.
 The damage in these short
columns is often in the form of X-
shaped cracking (shear failure).
 There is another special situation
in buildings when short column
effect occurs.
 Consider a wall of partial height
built to fit a window over the
remaining height.
 Short columns conti-----
 In many cases, other columns in
the same storey are of regular
height, as there are no walls
adjoining them.
 When the floor slab moves
horizontally during an earthquake,
the upper end of these columns
undergo the same displacement.
 However the stiff wall restrict
horizontal movement of the lower
portion of a short column, and it
deforms by the full amount over
the short height adjacent to the
window opening, where as the
regular columns deform over the
full height.