General Geology

Bright Star University

Faculty of Technical Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department

By: Mohammed Abdelsalam

1
First Lecture
UNIT
1
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOLOGY
WHAT IS
GEOLOGY
 Geology is the study of Earth, including the materials
that it is made of, the physical and chemical changes
that take place on its surface and in its interior and the
history of the planet and its life form.

 Geology is broadly divided into Physical Geology and

Historical Geology.

• Physical geology is concerned with the materials and

processes which compose and operate on the surface
of, and within the Earth.

• Historical geology is concerned with the origin and

evolution of Earth's continents, oceans, atmosphere,
and life.
BRANCHES OF
GEOLOGY
 GEOLOGY IN OUR
LIVES
 Geology is relevant to
everyone’s day-to-day life.

 Metals and energy sources

such as coal and petroleum
are geologic products that
build and power modern
society.

 Water, a precious natural

resource is used in industry,
agriculture and domestic
purpose is also a geologic
product.
landslides, earthquakes
 volcanic
Natural eruptions
hazards like and
related
are to
tsunamis, also
geology,
WHAT DOES A
GEOLOGIST

DO
Geologists work to understand the history of our planet. The better they can
understand Earth’s history the better they can foresee how events and processes of
the past might influence the future.

 Geologists study earth processes:

 Many processes such as landslides, earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions can be
hazardous to people.
 Geologists work to understand these processes well enough to avoid building important
structures where they might be damaged.
 If geologists can prepare maps of areas that have flooded in the past they can prepare
maps of areas that might be flooded in the future.
 These maps can be used to guide the development of communities and determine where flood
protection or flood insurance is needed.

 Geologists study earth materials:

 People use earth materials every day. They use oil that is produced from wells, metals that are
produced from mines, and water that has been drawn from streams or from underground.
 Geologists conduct studies that locate rocks that contain important metals, plan the mines that
produce them and the methods used to remove the metals from the rocks. They do similar
work to locate and produce oil, natural gas and ground water.

 Geologists study earth history:

 Today we are concerned about climate change. Many geologists are working to learn about the
past climates of earth and how they have changed across time.
 This historical geology news information is valuable to understand how our current climate is
WHERE DO GEOLOGISTS
WORK
Jobs in geology are found in
government agencies, private
companies, and non- profit and
academic institutions.

 Government agencies hire

geologists to investigate, plan and
evaluate excavations, construction
sites, natural disaster
preparedness, and natural
resources.

 Private companies hire geologists

to help locate natural resources
(minerals, oil and natural gas),
evaluate environmental impact and
comply with government
regulations, among many other
tasks.

 Geologists who prefer an

academic career usually work,
either as educators, researchers or
PROCESSES ACTING ON THE
EARTH
 The Earth is a Dynamic system that is
it undergoes constant changes with
time both internally and on its surface.

Internal Processes

 Processes that originate deep within

the Earth are termed as internal
processes. These are the driving forces
that raise mountains, cause
earthquakes and produce volcanic
eruptions.

Surface Processes

 Surface processes are all those

processes which take place on the
earth’s surface and result in sculpting
the earth’s surface. Most of the
surface processes are driven by water,
though wind, ice and gravity also play
GEO-
SPHERES
The area near the surface of the earth can
be divided
into four inter- "geo-spheres:"
atmosphe connected the
re, hydrosphere lithosphere and
biosphere. , the
ATMOSPHE
RE
 The atmosphere is the body of air
which surrounds our planet.

 Most of our atmosphere is located

close to the earth's surface where it
is most dense.

 The atmosphere not only provides

the air that we breathe but also
acts to protect us from the Sun’s
intense heat and dangerous
ultraviolet radiation.

 The energy exchanges that

continually occur between the
atmosphere and the surface and
between the atmosphere and space
produce the effects we call weather
and climate.

 The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen

and just under 21% oxygen; the
HYDROSPHE
RE
 The hydrosphere is
composed of all of the
water on or near the
earth.

 This includes the oceans,

rivers, lakes, and even the
moisture in the air.

 Ninety-seven percent of
the earth's water is in the
oceans.

 The remaining three

percent is fresh water;
three-quarters of the
fresh water is solid and
exists in ice sheets.
LITHOSPHE
RE
 Beneath the atmosphere and the oceans is the solid Earth, or
lithosphere.

 The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet.

 This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals.

BIOSPHE
RE
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms.

 Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are all part of the

biosphere.

 Most of the planet's life is found from three meters below the
ground to thirty meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the
oceans and seas.
 UNIFORMITARIANISM AND
CATASTROPHISM
 James Hutton a Scotish gentleman in 18th century
gave the concept of Uniformitarianism.


According to the Principle of Uniformitarianism,
geological changes take place over a long period of
time.

 Hutton summarized that geological processes

operating today also operated in the past therefore
scientists can explain events that occurred in the
past by observing changes that are occurring
today.

 Sometimes this whole idea is also known as “The

present is the key to the past.”
UNIFORMITARIANI
SM

The formation of river valleys due to the action of running

water or the movement of the continents are examples of very
slow and gradual changes
 UNIFORMITARIANISM AND
CATASTROPHISM
 William Whewell, another early geologist,
agreed that the Earth is very old, but he
argued that geologic change was sometimes
rapid.

 He wrote that the geologic past may have

“consisted of epochs catastrophic action,
interposed between periods of comparative
tranquility.”

 This phenomenon where earth was subjected to

rapid geological change as a result of certain
catastrophe came to be known as
CATASTROPHIS
M
UNIFORMITARIANISM AND
CATASTROPHISM

 Today, geologists know that both

Hutton’s uniformitarianism and
Whewell’s catastrophism are correct.

 Thus, over the great expanses of

geologic time, slow, uniform processes
are significant, but improbable,
catastrophic events radically modify
the path of slow change.
ROCK
CYCLE
Rock is the most common and abundant material on Earth.

 A rock consists of smaller crystals or grains called minerals. Minerals are

chemical compounds (or sometimes single elements), each with its
own composition and physical properties. The grains or crystals may
be microscopically small or easily seen with the unaided eye.

 The nature and appearance of a rock is strongly influenced by the

minerals that compose it.

 A rock’s texture—the size, shape, and/or arrangement of its constituent

minerals— also has a significant effect on its appearance.

 A rock’s mineral composition and texture, in turn, are a reflection of

the geologic processes that created it

 Geologists divide rocks into three major groups:igneous,

sedimentary, and metamorphic.
 Rock Cycle is the fundamental concept of Geology that describes
the dynamic transition through geologic time among the three
rock types Each type of rock is altered or destroyed when it is
IGNEOUS
ROCKS
 Magma is the molten material
which is formed when the
pressure and temperature
conditions are high enough to
melt the rocks.

 The Magma is formed in the

interior of the earth and then
gradually migrates upwards to
the earth’s crust.

 When it reaches the surface its

cools and solidifies by the
process of crystallization.

 The rocks formed as a result are

known as Igneous Rocks.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
 These igneous rocks when
exposed to the atmosphere
undergo weathering where
they disintegrate into smaller
particles.

 These particles known as

sediments are transported by
the agents of erosion such as
water, wind and ice.

 Finally these sediments are

deposited.

 These sediments are then

converted to rocks by the
process of lithification.

 The resulting rocks are known

as Sedimentary Rocks.
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
 If the resulting sedimentary rock
is buried deep within Earth and
involved in the dynamics of
mountain building or intruded by
a mass of magma, it will be
subjected to great pressures
and/or intense heat.

 The sedimentary rock will react to

the changing environment and
turn into the third rock type,
metamorphic rock.

 When metamorphic rock is

subjected to additional pressure
changes or to still higher
temperatures, it will melt,
creating magma, which will
eventually crystallize into igneous
rock, starting the cycle all over
again.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
Earth was not around at the
beginning— the universe began
without us some 10 billion years
earlier than Earth.

 The universe started out with

only two elements, hydrogen and
helium gas.

 They formed stars that burned

these elements in nuclear fusion
reactions.

 Generations of stars were born in

gas clouds and died in explosive
novas.

 Long, long ago (some 5 billion

 FORMATION OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
The mixture grew hot
and compressed
under its own gravity,
and at its center a
new star began to
form.

 Around it swirled a
disk of the same
material, which grew
white-hot from the
great compressive
forces.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 The planets of the Solar system can be divided into
groups depending on their proximity to the sun
and their density.

 The terrestrial planets are the four closest to the

sun and are all similar to the Earth in density. They
include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. All four
terrestrial planets are small, rocky and dense (3
g/cm3 or more).
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 The Jovian planets are those farther from the sun
than Mars
 They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
largerare
They than the Earth but their densities are
much
very low.
 They are made up of light elements most Hydrogen
and hence
and Heliumtheir densities
are low,
FORMATION OF THE
EARTH
 The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years is believed that it
old and formed by accretion of small was
particles.
 The Earth has a layered structure. The center is a dense, hot
core composed mainly of iron and nickel .

 A thick mantle, composed mainly of solid rock, surrounds the core

and contains 80 percent of the Earth’s volume.

 The crust is a thin surface also composed of rock.

STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH
Second Lecture
GEOLOGIC
TIME
 The earth is estimated to be 4.6 Billion Years old.
 Geologic time differs from the human perspective of time.
 Earth goes through cycles of much longer duration than the human
perspective of time.
 The geologic time scale is the calendar that geologists use to date past
events in Earth’s history.
 The Geological time scale is divided into Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs
and is identified primarily by the types of life that existed at the various
times.
 The two earliest eons, the Hadean and Archean, cover the first 2.5 billion
years of Earth history.
 Life originated during Archean time and with the passage of time the life
form evolved.
 Evolution was very gradual until the last 5 million years where many new
species evolved which were more complex than their ancestors.
The Geological
Time
Scale
UNIT
2
MATTER AND
MINERALS
ROCKS AND
MINERALS
 A rock is any solid mass of
mineral, or mineral-like, matter
that occurs naturally as part of
our planet.

 Most rocks, like the common rock

granite, occur as aggregates of
several different minerals.

 The term aggregate implies that

the minerals are joined in such a
way that their individual
properties are retained.

 However, some rocks are

composed almost entirely of one
mineral.

 A common example is the

sedimentary rock limestone,
which consists of impure masses
of the mineral calcite.
WHAT IS A
MINERAL
 A mineral is a
naturally occurring,
inorganic solid
with a
characteristic
chemical
composition and a
crystalline
structure.

 Chemical
composition and
crystalline structure
are the two most
important properties
WHAT ARE
MINERALS
 Naturally occurring

 Minerals form by natural, geologic processes.

 Synthetic materials, meaning those

produced in a laboratory or by
human intervention, are not considered minerals.

 Solid substance

 Only solid crystalline substances are considered minerals.

 Ice (frozen water) fits this criterion and is considered a mineral,

whereas liquid water and water vapor do not.

 The exception is mercury, which is found in its liquid form in nature.

WHAT ARE
MINERALS
Generally inorganic

 Minerals do not contain compounds of organic carbon.

 Organic carbon which is found in all living organisms bonds with hydrogen to
form compounds.

 Inorganic carbon is formed when carbon combines with elements other than
hydrogen.

 Thus coal is not a mineral because it contains organic carbon derived from
plant remains.

 Orderly crystalline structure

 Minerals are crystalline substances, which means
their atoms are arranged in an orderly, repetitive
manner

 This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in the

regularly shaped objects called crystals.
 Some naturally occurring solids, such as volcanic
 To have(obsidian),
glass a crystalline structure,
lack a substance
a repetitive must be
atomic structure
solid at at Earth’s surface temperature
and are not considered minerals. and not in the
liquid or gaseous phase. NaCl (Sodium
Chloride)
WHAT ARE
MINERALS
 Can be represented by a chemical formula

 Most minerals are chemical compounds having compositions that can be

expressed by a chemical formula.

 For example, the common mineral quartz has the formula SiO2, which
indicates that quartz consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms in a ratio of
one-to-two.

 This proportion of silicon to oxygen is true for any sample of pure quartz,
regardless of its origin.

 However, the compositions of some minerals vary within specific, well-defined

limits.

 This occurs because certain elements can substitute for others of similar size
without changing the mineral’s internal structure.

 An example is the mineral olivine in which either the element magnesium (Mg) or
the element iron (Fe) may occupy the same site in the crystal structure.

 Therefore, olivine’s formula, (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, expresses variability in the relative

ELEMENTS &
ATOM
 An element cannot be broken into
simpler particles by ordinary
chemical processes.

 Most common minerals consist of a

small number—usually two to five of
different chemical elements

ROCKS – MINERALS – ELEMNTS -

COMMON
ELEMENTS
 A total of 91 elements occur naturally in the
Earth’s crust. However, eight elements make up
more than 98 percent of the earth’s crust. These
elements are

 Oxygen,
 Silicon,
 Aluminum,
 Iron,
 Calcium,
 Magnesium,
 Potassium and
 Sodium
THE PERIODIC
TABLE

As of June 2011, the periodic table includes 118 chemical elements

whose discoveries have been confirmed. Of these, 91 are regularly
occurring primordial or recurrently produced elements found
 STRUCTURE OF AN
 ATOM
An atom is the basic unit of an element.

 An atom is tiny; the diameter of the

average atom is about 10ˉ10 meters.

 An atom consists of a small, dense,

positively charged center called a
Nucleus .

 The Nucleus contains dense particles

with positive electric charge known as
Protons .

 and equally dense particles with neutral

electric charges know as Neutrons.

 The nucleus is surrounded by

negatively charged Electrons.

 An electron is a fundamental particle; it

ATOMIC MASS AND
NUMBER
In its normal state an atom is
electrically neutral as the number
of protons(+ charge) is always
equal to the number of electrons (-
charge)

 Atomic weight/mass of an atom is

equal to the total number of
Neutrons + Protons

 Atomic Number of an atom is equal

to its number of Proton or Electron.
ION
S Electrons

layers
concentrate in spherical
or shells around the
nucleus.

 Each shell can hold a certain

number of electrons.

 An atom is completely stable when

its outermost shell is completely fill
with electrons.

 However in their neutral states

most atoms do not have a filled
outer shell.

 The atoms can loose or gain an

 electron toatom
When makeloses
its outer
one shell
or
complete.
an more its protons
electron outnumber its and it
s, develops a positive
electron
 s
If anatom gains one or more
charge.
extra electrons, it becomes
negatively charged.
ION
S

 A positively charged ion is a

Cation. (Na+ ).

 Atom with a negative charge

is called Anion, (Cl- ).

 Atoms and ions rarely exist

independently. Instead, they
unite to form Compounds.
(NaCl).

 The forces that hold atoms

and ions together to form
compounds are called
ELECTRON PATTERN FOR THE FIRST 20
ELEMENTS
Atomic Number of Electrons in Each shell
Element Symbol Number First (2 is stable) Second (8 is stable) Third (8 is stable) Fourth (8 is stable)

Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7
Neon Ne 10 2 8
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Aluminum Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Sulfur S 16 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8
Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2
CHEMICAL
BONDS
 Four types of chemical bonds are
found in minerals:

1. Ionic,

2. Covalent

3. Metallic

4. Van der Waals forces

IONIC
BONDS
Cations and anions are
attracted by their opposite
electronic charges and thus
bond together.

 This union is called an ionic

bond.

 An ionic compound (made up

of two or more ions) is
neutral because the positive
and negative charges
balance each other.

 For example, when sodium

and chlorine form an ionic
bond, the sodium atom loses
one electron to become a
cation and chlorine gains
one to become an anion.
COVALENT
BONDS
 Not all atoms combine by
transferring electrons to
form ions.

 Other atoms share

electrons.

 A covalent bond
develops when two or
more atoms share their
electrons to produce the
effect of filled outer
electron shells.

 For example the gaseous

elements
Oxygen,O2; Hydrogen,H2
and Chlorine, Cl2 exist as
stable molecules
IONIC AND COVALENT
BONDS
METALLIC
BONDS
 In a metallic bond, the outer
electrons are loose; that is, they
are not associated with particular
atoms.

 This arrangement allows the

nuclei to pack together as closely
as possible, resulting in the
characteristic high density of
metals and metallic minerals,
such as pyrite.

 Because the electrons are free to

move through the entire crystal,
metallic minerals are excellent
conductors of electricity and
heat.